“Look like the innocent flower,
But be the serpent under’t,”
Might have recalled the medal struck to commemorate the discovery of the plot, showing a serpent concealed beneath flowers, and Paul suggests that Duncan’s comment on the treachery of the Thane of Cawdor,
“There’s no art
To find the mind’s construction in the face:
He was a gentleman on whom I built
An absolute trust,”
The murder, or attempted murder, of a king was regarded with particular horror, as the supreme violation of the principles according to which God had created the universe. We are shown this by Macbeth’s response to killing Duncan and when he realises that he is eternally damned to hell,
“Listening their fear, I could not say “Amen”
When they did say “God bless us”
Political theory stressed the importance of order in the state, and from the Middle Ages it was assumed that this order should be hierarchical, reflecting the hierarchy of heaven, in which, it was thought, the various ranks of spiritual beings were placed one above the other ascending to God himself. The natural structure of the state therefore was the hierarchy of different social classes with the king at its apex – God’s representative on Earth. In Basilicon Doron, the manual on kingship he wrote for his son, James maintained that not even a tyrant might be lawfully deposed once he had been acknowledged as king.
The same principle of order was to be seen in the natural world, rising from the lowest form of material substance through the vegetable and animal kingdoms to man as its natural ruler, and each subdivision of this great chain of creation was thought to be organised on a similar pattern. Animals, plants, and even inanimate things were ranked according to their status: the sun was the monarch of the physical heavens, the lion of the animals, the eagle of birds. Because all these hierarchies mirrored each other there was thought to be a sympathetic relationship, or “correspondence” between them so that disturbances in one were reflected by disturbances in the others. Thus when the king is murdered it is appropriate that there are sympathetic disturbances in the elements, that the sun is darkened, a falcon killed by a mousing owl, and Duncan’s horses turn not only on each other but also against their natural superior, man – as the Old Man says,
“Tis unnatural,
Even like the deed that’s done.”
We accept such relationships as symbolic, but for the Jacobeans they would also have had a more literal meaning.
Human nature was understood in terms of the same hierarchical principle. Man’s physical and mental health depended on the preservation of a harmonious order between the various organs and faculties. Man was a universe in miniature, a “macrocosm” or “great world”. When Macbeth refers to his “single state of man” – his “individual state” – he is suggesting this relationship between a political state and the human constitution; his temporary loss of control is seen as a rebellion against him by his physical organs and his imagination. The same conditions were necessary for man’s physical and mental health as for the well being of the country. Reasons should rule; when Macbeth’s ambition rebels against it his whole constitution becomes disordered, and his kingdom is similarly infected “Scotland needs purging”. Conversely, the legitimate king is “the medicine of the sickly weal”. This idea was given literal expression by the belief that the king could cure scrofula – the “king’s evil” – by touching the afflicted person. The efficacy of the king’s touch was regarded as evidence of his legitimacy, so although James thought the practice superstitious he continued it in a modified form – as Malcolm describes the ceremony at the court of Edward the Confessor.
“All swollen and ulcerous, pitiful to the eye
The mere despair of surgery, he cures”
We must remember that Macbeth was most likely written for the audience of James, and therefore for the King to hear of the “most miraculous work in this good king…. in England” would have pleased him greatly.
When one regards the stark contrast in the treatment of the minions of Duncan and Macbeth, during their reigns and, what is said about the two separate reigns, it is quite obvious who was liked and who was not. It would be common sense that if you, the king, treat people well, he will be treated the same in return. On the other hand, if a king is seen to be fearful of your subjects there will be a direct consequence of fear in the land, of people fearful for their lives. Duncan’s rule therefore shows the qualities that a leader must possess if their land is to prosper. On the other hand, the attributes shown by Macbeth, during his reign, could be described quite simply, as a recipe for disaster due to tyrannical nature. We are shown the true picture of how Scotland is, through the words of Macduff to Malcolm,
“Alas, poor country
Almost afraid to know itself. It cannot
Be called our mother, but our grace; where nothing
But who knows nothing is once seen to smile”
Duncan is seen as a good king. He is judicious, which is demonstrated by his execution of the original Thane of Cawdor and his decision to give the title to Macbeth,
What he hath lost, noble Macbeth hath won”
We could also take from this, the fact that he is concerned about his country and yet, on the other hand he deals fairly with his minions abiding in his country. He is trusting, yet naïve, when referring to his former Thane,
“There’s no art
To find the mind’s construction in the face
He was a gentleman on whom I built
An absolute trust”
This appears as being very ironic however, as he builds trust in his new Thane, Macbeth, who eventually murders Duncan.
He is appreciative and admiring,
“O worthiest cousin,
The sin of my ingratitude even now
Was heavy on me”
Duncan’s affection towards Lady Macbeth is probably the ultimate display of his trust hence her betrayal is increased and much greater,
“See, see our honoured hostess
The love that follows us sometime is our trouble
Which we shall thank as love”
His trust can be interpreted as naïve, but trust is a quality that secures his reputation as a good king. His reputation is fought for later on as, this fuels the revenge sought by Malcolm and Macduff, as Macduff comments,
“Thy royal father
Was a most sainted king”
It is this sense of reverence on Duncan’s memory and remembrance, which sparks the adrenalin of Macbeth’s enemies, determining them to destroy him.
Throughout the play, our view of whether or not Macbeth would make a good king and leader changes systematically as his emotions and ambition take over him. The witches already incur mystery and tension in the character of Macbeth by mentioning his name in the brief opening scene so; we are intrigued what his involvement with the supernatural will be. Though the likelihood that Macbeth may be on the side of evil is made even more improbable wit the Captains report,
“Brave Macbeth”
Macbeth is shown as a brave, noble warrior defending his country against a mass of enemies. These qualities should have had made him ideal for leadership due to the respect he acquired but later, he ruins all of this.
On the other hand, a king must be strong-minded with a free will to control his life and govern his land to the best of his ability. Macbeth contradicts this by being weak and easily influenced. Had he been left to himself, he would not have killed Duncan due the battle which raged inside him, whereby he decided not to kill Duncan as he had “bought golden opinions from all sorts of people” as he wishes to enjoy his honour not just simply discard it.
A king must not be cowardly; yet, it could be argued that Macbeth murdered Duncan to prove his masculinity which, when considered, is the best possible case to show his weakness and cowardly nature.
“I dare do all that may become a man;
Who dares do more is none”
After becoming king, Macbeth can never be secure in his position of power because of his mental uneasiness. His insecurities due to his murder of Duncan have trapped him in a vicious circle that ruins his mind and rids his conscience. Thus, he is made incapable of ruling Scotland due to his inner struggle for sanity
“Methought I heard a voice cry ‘Sleep no more!
Macbeth does murder sleep”
Sleep is a state whereby we experience to unrest. Macbeth tries to find comfort in sleep but he realised he will forever be haunted in his dreams by his actions i.e. the murder of Duncan.
He is mentally uneasy but, during his reign he always attempted to give the impression that he was a bold warrior that was, his former self.
“Are you a man?”
“Ay and a bold one, that dare look on that
Which might appal the devil”
We are shown that he is infused with a false sense of courage after the apparently bizarre prophecies of the witches in Act 4. This artificiality is a main reason for the stoical apathy, which has consumed him by the end,
“What’s he
That was not born of woman? Such a one
Am I to fear, or none.”
But this artificiality caused an emotional void. He lived dishonestly and when he must face honest emotion e.g. the death of Lady Macbeth, he is incapable of doing so,
“She should have died hereafter”
This is the result of the emotionless tyranny he induced in himself, caused by his ambition and the influence of Lady Macbeth and the witches. How can a man so empty and indifferent lead a nation?
Duncan embodies the idea of a good king: judicious, honest and trusting of his subject. He has a balanced sense of judgement, for example, after the execution of the former Thane of Cawdor,
“Go pronounce his present death,
And with his former title greet Macbeth”
By contrast Macbeth is a mutation of the divine chain of order. God does not bestow kingship upon him, he takes the rank of king by his own acts of brutality. He is tyrannical and due to his corrupted mind he affects Scotland in the process,
“Those he commands move only in command,
Nothing in love”
He no longer inspires his subjects and people now just move in fear and respect. He has lost his “coat of admiration”. He was never noble and dignified enough to hold this title. God creates kingship, Macbeth is the unnatural king whereas Malcolm is the true successor to the throne.
“We will establish our estate upon our eldest Malcolm”
Malcolm signifies restoration and a new hope for Scotland and, after the death of Macbeth the natural lineage is restored with Malcolm.
The link between the king and God is stressed continually throughout the play by the use of various images; good kings are always linked to religion. Macduff commented to Malcolm,
“Thy royal father was a most sainted king”
While later on in the play, Macduff refers to the king, Macbeth as being “devilish Macbeth”. This links the tyrant with the devil and hell. Macduff reinforces this view when he said,
“Not in the legions
Of horrid hell can come a devil more damned
In evils, to top Macbeth”
With the natural lineage restored, the play is resolved; Macbeth’s rule as unnatural king is the spur of action for the characters and of the play. The return of rationality occurs when Malcolm is pronounced king. During his speech at the close of the play, he appears almost immediately to be rational and balanced in judgement, just like his father,
“We will perform in measure, time and place”
Being pious, rational and balanced are the qualities necessary for a god ruler. Macbeth, who acquired the rank of King by his own actions, polluted this blueprint for the ideal king but, Malcolm, the rightful king of Scotland, restored it.
In conclusion to the question asked, about the qualities required of a good king or leader, it must be said that:
Due to the belief in the divine right of kings, we are shown that during the course of the play, Duncan and his son Malcolm are the only 2 rightful kings as God bestows their kingship upon them. In addition, Macbeth is a mutation of the divine chain of order, as God does not bestow kingship upon him. The link between the king and God is stressed continually throughout the play through the use of images linking good kings to religions.
Also, it could be argued that Macbeth was written for a royal audience and that the play was meant to please the king linking him to the character Banquo. There would have been good reason also, to emphasise the importance of national unity and of an undisputed succession of kings for the well being of the country. James I would have had to feel secure about his position as king after incidents, such as the Gunpowder Plot.
The murder, or attempted murder, of a king was regarded as an unforgivable sin due to the supreme violation of the principles according to which God created the universe. The act of regicide was viewed with particular horror, as it was believed that the king was God’s representative on Earth.
Due to Macbeth’s tyrannical nature, the attributes shown by Macbeth, during his reign were a recipe for disaster. Yet, in the opening stages, we view Macbeth as a brave, noble warrior making him the ideal leader. This is though, until his ambition takes over and our view of Macbeth systematically changes.
Finally, throughout the play we see the qualities and attributes that a good king or leader should or should not possess if he is to prosper, gain respect and to rule to the best of his ability.
Acknowledgements
HN Paul – The Royal Play of Macbeth
Macmillan Company – The Contemporary Background of the Play