• Governments and developers have used underhand tactics to make people sign the agreements.
• There are fears amongst the people that the government won’t actually build alternative accommodation but instead will be replaced with higher value developments for businesses and companies to allow the city to continue to expand.
Dharavi is also an example of suburbanisation, other shanty towns like the favelas in Sao Paulo, Brazil
Suburbanisation
Key themes
• Suburban growth is caused people moving out of the city centre and into the rural edges, push pull
• The process of suburbanisation is entering a new phase with offices and businesses now leaving the city for the suburbs
• Rapid urban growth creates social and environmental problems, including sprawl, pollution, congestion, and problems of water supply and waste disposal
Definitions
1. SUBURBANISATION – decentralisation of people, employment and services from the inner part of the city towards the margins of the built up area – the effects of suburbanisation are felt within the city and in the surrounding rural areas.
2. COUNTER URBANISATION – this is change extending beyond the city area and marks the apparent reversal of the urbanisation process which is occurring in MEDCs – i.e. urban – rural migration is taking place.
Growth and decline of cities
• 75% of people in MEDC’s live in urban places
• However since 1970’s the trend has been to move out of cities into rural areas – this is caused COUNTER URBANISATION
• This pattern hides significant variations between cities
• Suburbanisation in MEDCs has been OCCURRING SINCE THE MID 20TH century
• The main reasons for it are-
Transport infrastructure improved – public and private
Increasing wealth
Decentralisation of industry and other facilities in the suburbs
Demand and availability of housing (often to replace outdated inner city)
Availability of low-cost land allowed cheaper, but larger houses to be built
Who moved?
• 1950 -1980 30% UK city based population moved out of central areas to urban fringe
• Wealthier middle-class inhabitants were able to commute to work
Why did they move?
• Perception of better lifestyle:
Clean & green
Less congestion
Sense of community with local services such as, Village Hall, Church, Pub, School, Shop, Sports Club etc.
• Safe:
Less crime & vandalism
• Economic change:
Footloose industry – self employed entrepreneurs
Consequences of suburban growth
• Decentralisation of towns and cities
• Many estates were private houses, Surbiton, middle class and affluent, little crime, environmentally sustainable
• Still several council estates built to re-house people from the inner cities, Becontree, working class and unemployed, similar to what it was like in inner city London, high crime rates, limited facilities
• The major consequence of Suburbanisation therefore was social segregation
• N.B. every suburbanised village is slightly different, but the same principles, causes and consequences applies
Suburban dream
• Families to own their own home with a garden
• Send their children to good schools
• Escape the dirt and crime of the city
Limitations
• Suburbanisation in the UK has been limited by the establishments of GREEN BELTS
• These have prevented further spread of residential areas and other developments
• In many other MEDCs these planning restrictions do not exist e.g. American Edge cities.
Counter-urbanisation
COUNTER URBANISATION -The movement of people from an urban area into the surrounding rural area”
A different process to Suburbanisation, but easy to confuse them if not careful, Suburbanisation is the movement from the centre of urban areas to the outskirts
There are two main trends:
• A movement of employment to rural areas
• A movement of people to rural areas who then commute.
Counter-urbanisation began in Britain in the 1960s in particular and by 1990 a net movement of 1,700 people were leaving for rural areas.
Causes of counter urbanisation
• Accessibility- railways, motorways etc. Easier to get to work
• Mobility- more people now own cars
• Increased wealth- meaning houses and travel is more affordable
• Agriculture- less labour and land needed- land becomes available
• Because of previous point, many agricultural workers leave the area
• Green belts mean people need to go further out to get the place they are looking for
• Fashion- people’s desire to live here
• Increased working from home due to improvements in communications
Who is moving to rural areas?
• The most affluent and mobile people
• Families with children (keen to avoid the possible disadvantages of city locations)
• Push Pull factors
• Traffic congestion
• Pollution
• Fear of Crime (muggings, burglary and car theft)
• Rural dream (idea of the ‘rural idyll’ – pleasant surroundings, quiet etc.)
• Estate Agents, housing developers etc. All encourage outward movement through new developments / building more houses and marketing these areas.
Consequences of counter urbanisation
NEGATIVE EFFECTS
• House prices increase – locals young people cannot afford to buy property in areas they grew up – loss of traditional buildings
• Middle class immigrants – social structure changes -local resentment caused
• Lack of appreciation of traditional customs of village life by newcomers – change in community spirit
• Dormitory villages lose vitality and community spirit (very quiet during the day)
• Increase in population
• Increased traffic flow & dependence on car – increase congestion & accidents
• Decline in local shops & services (N.B. issue of Post Office closures) replaced by(supermarket/filling station)
• Loss of agricultural land
POSITIVE EFFECTS
• Improvement in services – e.g. gas mains, cable TV, supports local schools
• Supports some local facilities (e.g. pub, builders etc.) – although others may close
• Primary schools might flourish (or close) – young population - increase nursery provision
• Housing fabric improved, new housing, bar conversions.
• Light industry may develop, B&B, small hotels, bistros
people living below the poverty line.
Re-urbanisation
Definition
RE-URBANISATION- Is the movement of people into the city centre or inner city. This is part of urban regeneration.
Three main processes
1. GENTRIFICATION-In movement by individuals or groups of people into older housing that was in a state of disrepair and then the improvement of the housing e.g Notting Hill
2. PROPERTY LED REGENERATION SCHEMES- in movement by people as part of a large scale investment programme aimed at urban regeneration in a wider social economic sense e.g London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC)
3. SUSTAINABLE COMMUNITIES- allowing individuals and communities, who live in the city centre have access to a home, a job and a reliable income, with a reasonable quality of life and opportunities to maximise personal potential through education or health such a GMV(Greenwich Millennium Village)
Gentrification
• small scale
• accompanied by landscape and street furniture improvements and higher order shops:-
delicatessens
wine bars
picture galleries
• Bellevue Village, London. Notting Hill
Case Study
Gentrification-Notting Hill, London
what is gentrification ?
Gentrification has spread along the northern line in the south of London, e.g. Clapham, Balham and to the north in Notting Hill; here house prices have doubled because it is so commuter friendly.
• In the Victorian times Notting hill was a rough and “working class” area
• 1950’s there was inner city deprivation
• 1958 influx of Caribbean people
• In the past 30 years there has been gentrification of the area
• Rocketing house prices leading to them being more expensive than the Mayfair area
• Secluded gardens which area desirable for families
• Notting Hill the film ( Hugh Grant) popularised the area
• Famous people like Stella McCartney and Robbie Williams
• However it is not all nice the Trellick tower was built in 1973 is infamous for rape and drug problems
• Built by Hungarian Erno Goldfinger
• There is an area of gentrification next to an area of deprivation
• Nowadays there is extra security, and is a listed building so it is now becoming more trendy
Consequences of gentrification
Urban decline
Characteristics and causes
• High population out-migration figures
• Boarded up shops and houses
• Empty and derelict buildings
• Vacant factories and overgrown wasteland
• Reduction in service provision e.g. schools and healthcare
• Low levels of employment and educational attainment
• Crime, vandalism, graffiti, drugs, rape
• Political marginalization of residents
• Type of housing e.g. council houses and high rise flats rather than privately owned terrace housing and detached houses
• Large variety of ethnicities
• Lack of open space
• Pollution, low environmental quality
Inner city problems
• Economic decline
• Population loss
• Poor physical environment
• Political problems
Case Study
Urban decline and regeneration –London Docklands, and Manchester
Retail
Decentralisation of retail and other services
• Edge of a city or town near to main trunk roads
• Built on Brownfield or Greenfield sites
• These have increase due to the free parking and increased mobility
• Shopping is now a leisure activity with food, cinema,, shops and even a crèche
• Cheap land outside of town centre
• Economies of scale
• Planners encourage people to locate here to improve the Brownfield sites
• Can cause inner city decline
Causes of decentralisation
• Increased possibilities of home storage such as bulk buys of food and furniture
• Reduced time for basic shopping- more adults especially women in work
• Growth of ready meals in response to customer needs
• Growth of the shopping experience- becoming a leisure activity
• Reduction in small specialty stores e.g. Butchers
Characteristics of main out-of-town shopping centres
• Large extensive site on fairly flat land
• Large buildings at the most 2 storey
• Large areas of car parking easily available from different areas
• Easy links with bus routes and tram networks
• Undercover shopping areas
• Entertainment such as cinemas
• Inside, easy to clean, air-conditioned and safe
• Built on industrial estates, steelworks or ash dump
Impact of out-of-town shopping centres
Case Study
Retail centres –The Trafford Centre, Manchester
• Opened in 1998, people were worried about the effect on the CBD
• 5.5 million people (10% of the population) live within 45 minutes of the centre
• 2005, 29.4 million people visited the centre
• Food court, 18 lane bowling alley, laser quest and a 20 screen cinema complex
• 2006 expansion, Barton Square for furniture, kitchens and home ware
Advantages
• Good motorway links, M60 and easy links to M6, M61, M62 and M602 to Manchester city centre
• 11,000 free car parking spaces
• Bus station with regular buses to deal with 120 buses every hour
• Facilities for the disabled, regularly spaced within the complex including scooters and wheelchairs
• Weatherproof, air conditioned and safe environment
• Own security system, with a tannoy and meeting point for lost children
• Full range of service, such as post office, banks and travel agents
Disadvantages
• Heavy build up of traffic on the access road network e.g. M60 at Christmas
• The atmosphere within the complex is artificial, although there are 5 themed sections
• All chain stores as it is too expensive for local or independent businesses to rent a space in the centre
• Public transport services to the centre are restricted, though improving, which makes access difficult of elderly shoppers
• In 2004 87% of shoppers came by car, however, there are plans to expand the Metrolink and rail to the centre
• Difficult for poor people to gain access to the centre e.g. homeless are kept out by security for safety
There is also the “Chill Factor” on the same site which houses an indoor ski slope, AirKix, PlayGolf, and leisure centre
Contemporary sustainability issues in urban areas
Waste management recycling and its alternatives
Main urban waste problems
• LEDC’s and MEDC’s have different challenges
• LEDC’s need to extend formal collection and disposal
• Poor outlying areas often have no regulated system
• MEDC’s 3-5 times more waste person, especially paper
• More wasteful society leads to inefficient re-use compared to LEDC’s
Dangers of solid waste
• To wild animals
• Aesthetics of rubbish
• Waste which becomes harmful over time e.g. Crushed batteries release mercury
• Liquids that collect
• Gases- CO2, other greenhouse gases, smells
• Uncontrolled dumping, fly-tipping
• Loss of natural resources
Waste management hierarchy
• Reduce- lowering the amount of waste produced
• Reuse- using materials repeatedly
• Recycle- using materials to make new products
• Recovery- recovering energy from waste
• Landfill- safe disposal of waste to landfill
By 2020 the OECD estimate, the EU could be generating 45% more waste than we did in 1995. Obviously we must reverse this trend if we are to avoid being submerged in rubbish, prevention or minimisation, we could do this by:-
• Discouraging use of disposable products such as cutlery
• Designing goods using fewer materials e.g. lightweight cans
• Refusing to use plastic bags
• Encouraging producers to use much less packaging
Re-use
Re-use second hand products, repairing broken items, designing products to be refillable or reusable. LEDC’s can often get involved in considerable amounts of reusing materials such as tyres, plastic sheets, although in different forms such as sandals and windows
Recycle
EU and UK targets to reduce landfill by reusing raw materials from everyday items collected separately or sorted and reprocessed, the EU priorities packaging, vehicles, batteries and electronic waste.
Composting
Biological reprocessing, plant material, food scraps, paper products recycled for agricultural or landscaping purposes. Anaerobic digestion; electricity production from gases produced from digestion of organic material and residue used for soil conditions
Incineration
Burning solid waste in a controlled way leaves less bulky residue and is less hazardous. Considered less economic against landfill in 20th centenary, due to the emission controls introduced in the 1990’s. In 2006-2007 only 11%of waste was said the be burnt in the UK, with energy recovery, however this may rise in the future as it is very common in western Europe. E.G.:-
• Leicester turn waste in to electricity, the waste is separated and produces methane which generates electricity, not a lot is produced but it is better than methane causing global warming
Wembley stadium installed a vacuum packing waste in flats, the waste is separated in to three bins then chutes suck it up and put it in cyclones which compact it. It is a very clean and technical with no smell
Dispose/Landfill
Convenient and cheap method, used=s abandoned or unused quarries or pits. If properly designed and well managed, however landfill can be unhygienic, unsightly, windblown litter, attract vermin, generation of liquid leaching into soil. Landfill gas (methane and CO2) more than 40% of the EU’s municipal waste ends up in landfill sites (2010)
Role of the Government
There is a landfill tax, pay-as-you-throw, monitoring of systems e.g. Japan. EU policies are carried out in the UK by DEFRA.
Case Study
Waste Management –The Zabbaleen people, Cairo, Egypt
• In Cairo there is a very successful garbage disposal system
• Carried out by the informal sector, by the Zabbaleen people.
• gather waste from the richer quarters of the city for a small fee and then sort it in ‘Garbage City’
• Recycled up to 90%.
• Plastics and other materials can be sold on for a profit
• Food scraps are given to the animals.
• This system is different to the rest of the western world as this is run as a small-medium sized private business
• People have pride in what they do.
• It generates an income and requires technical knowhow and responds to the prices of raw materials.
• This system is also so successful because rubbish is collected daily from to door so there is no build up of rubbish only in ‘Garbage City’.
Urban transport and its management
London
The London congestion was introduced in central
What are the impacts of the growth of car use?
• Casualties on the road
• Pollution- CO, N, smoke, particulates, noise
• Congestion- impact on individuals and businesses
Urban transport solutions
• Discouraging car use and managing traffic
• Improving public transport methods
• New mass transit schemes
• Adjusting land use planning to reduce journeys and improve city centres
ROAD SCHEMES AND RESTRICTED ACCESS= Radial routes around large cities e.g. M25, which has had to be widened in some places to cope with the flow of traffic. Congestion charges for cars in central London was introduced in 2003, as well as bus lanes to encourage usage of public transport and decreasing car traffic
ROAD TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT SCHEMES = such as strict on-street parking controls and expensive car parks, pedestrianisation in city centre and encouraging park and ride schemes
STREAMLINING OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT=E.g. Merseyside where 1/3 of the population lives 1km from a station
NE MASS TRANSIT SYSTEMS=Low cost, Super Tram, Sheffield and Metrolink, Manchester
Case Study
Sustainable Urban Living –Curitiba, Brazil
Fact file
• 2 million people live in Curitiba
• 1000km from Rio de Jeniro
• city wide service to recycle products
• Recycling and garbage system prevent waste issues, organic and nonorganic, with two different trucks for different types of rubbish
• The rubbish is sorted and distributed and reused this means that 2/3 of rubbish is recycled
• It also creates more jobs to help reduce unemployment
• Jaime Lerner, was an architect and later became mayor and designed the current layout of Curitiba
• The city has changed from being an agricultural area to a more industrial city
• There are still green spaces, “solution of the parks” By Lerner.
• Flood problems have also been solved by building the parks on the flood plains and making artificial river banks around them this also prevents squatting and slums appearing in the parks
Integrated Transport system
Buses that move people to and from the city
• There are bus lanes along the main roads
• Red buses- Express with few stops
• Orange buses- outlying settlements into the city
• These buses mean that there is little congestion and more land for development
• The buses are 500 time cheaper than using a car
• Express bus lanes doubles the capacity of people who use the buses
• There are pre-paid bus fares to reduce queuing time and extra wide doors on the buses to let people get on easier
• It has reduced travel times by 1/3
• The bus drivers are paid in miles covered not by how many people use the line this means all routes are always covered
• Only 10% of low income earners money goes on transport
• Lowest amount of pollution and low consumption of fuel per capita as well
• There is a highly educated workforce which attracted by international business e.g. Volvo
Waste management
• Very poor residents, however they can also use the transport system by using the GREEN EXCHANGE, where rubbish is separated and collected and can be exchanged for food or bus tickets, this also allows rubbish collection in slums
• This started in the 1990’s and helps 30,000 families move 300 tonnes of waste each year
• There is a mall in the centre of the city which was made it to pedestrianised streets in under 72 hours to prevent shop owners becoming angry
• This was done by having children painting on the streets to prevent cars and to encouraged families.
