A life course perspective

The term life course is used to describe the path an individual takes from the moment they are born to the point of death. This life course will be different for every individual and will be influenced by the events and experiences that people go through throughout their lives. (Crawford and Walker, 2003)

There are various different perspectives on how to approach the life course and each has a different emphasis. Contemporary theories underpin how social workers approach their tasks and come from the disciplines of sociology, biology and psychology. These are all relevant to an understanding of life course development.

The sociological approach gives emphasis to the social and environmental factors that influence our lives. Karl Marx (1818-1883) was one theorist from this discipline that emphasised the importance of social and economic structures in influencing our development, such as if the person had access to education.

Another sociological theory was that devised by Bronfenbrenner (1979).

This theory looks at a child’s development within the context of the system of influences that form their environment. Brofenbrenners theory defines complex layers of environment, each having an effect on a child’s development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers.

He describes these layers as interlocking systems that shape and influence an individual’s development.

The microsystem looks at those factors that are located within the child’s immediate environment, such as parents or events in the home. These factors have the greatest impact on the child because they experiences are concrete and direct.

The mesosystem describes the way in which two or more microsystems interact.

The exosystem is the layer that is beyond the immediate environment of the child, such as the childs neighbourhood.

The macrosystem includes larger societal factors such as economic conditions and cultural values.

The chronosystem is used to account for the influence of time on development.

Crawford and Walker (2003 p19)

Theories from the discipline of biology focus on human behaviour being determined by genetic make up, physical development, human growth stages and instinct.

“We must however acknowledge as it seems to me, that a man with all his noble qualities…..still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lower origin.”

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Psychological theories look at the individual being influenced by their thoughts, feelings and emotions.

Jean Piaget (1936) focused on the development of a child, on their thinking rather than their personality.

A key concept of this is adaption, made up of the subprocesses of assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium. The result of several major equilibrasations is a set of four cognitive stages, each resulting in a coherent cognitive system: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations and formal operations. (Beckett , C, 2002)

Freud (1856-1939) emphasised that behaviour is governed by unconsciousness as well as conscious motives and that the personality develops in steps, the id, then the ego and then the super ego. He also proposed a set of five psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. (Bee, H ,1994)

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Extending on Freuds psychosexual theory, Erik Erikson developed a psychosocial theory named the 8 eight stages of man Erikson (1995). Erikson developed the model of identity development. He saw the identity developing through a series of stages of which it faces a ‘crisis’ which must be resolved for the individual to move on successfully to the next stage. Each stage is a challenge that needs to be successfully negotiated before the individual can move on. If they do not then they may have problems in later stages.

Whilst it is important for social workers to have knowledge of these theories, no one, theory can be easily applied to explain a person’s life course. One theory may be relevant to a particular person at a particular moment in time. For example Piagets theory may be useful for child development but is not so useful in explaining the challenges of life events, influencing growth and development in later life. Here Eriksons model may be more useful. (Crawford and Walker, 2003)

However the staged models do not account for difference and diversity. They do not apply readily to those from different cultures other than white European. Sexuality and gender are not easily explained, Eriksons model was compiled from research done from a male perspective only. (Bee, H ,1994)

Eriksons and other staged models could be described as too rigid and prescriptive. Real life doesn’t neatly fit into neat stages, society is changing and people go along different paths.

One of the major difficulties with these models is that they no longer apply to today’s life patterns. People are living longer than ever before with the advent of better health care.

Theories are not facts; they must be questioned and explored before offering an explanation. They are like people, fluid in their implementation and they can not account for all the available evidence on human development but do offer useful concepts.

The staged models mentioned above involve people going through transitions throughout different periods in their lives. They state that in order for someone to move successfully to the next stage they must go through these transitions during the life course. The theories imply fixed life cycle changes that form a common experience for everyone.

Transition is defined by the Concise Oxford dictionary as ‘passage or change from one place or state or act or set of circumstances to another’ in (Beckett , C, 2002)

Paul Baltes (1987) described in his three influencing human development these being normative age graded, normative history graded and non normative.

Normative age graded could be starting school, the advent of puberty and physical changes associated with aging. Normative history graded influences include wars, depressions or other significant events. Non normative includes such things as divorce, illness, career change or unemployment.

The decisions made through these transitions will depend on influences from the past life experiences, how they view the present and what impact it will have on future experiences. These transitions have the potential to be challenging for people or provide an opportunity to grow and develop, possibly triggering change in someone and moving on. This is why it is important for social work practice to be aware of these transitions and if needed can assist people through these at different points in their lives.

However people have different perceptions of how these transitions affect them, what may be challenging for one individual may not be for another. They may have learnt to deal better with these ‘crisis points’ when they arise and use the resources at their disposal.

Even those transitions that we welcome can be a time of stress for an individual, an example of this may be marriage; it may be an exciting time and marks the transition from being single to married life but can also be a very stressful time.

Holmes and Rahe (1967) ordered different life events and the stress caused by them in their Social Readjustment Rating Scale. This includes both positive and negative life events that people accumulate in a 12 month period and attempts to predict that people will endure some stress related health problems around this, if they score over 200. (Crawford and Walker, 2003 p 100)

However, Sugarman (1986) suggests that there is a ‘recognisable sequence of responses accompanying a wide range of transitions:

Immobilisation- a sense of being overwhelmed.
Reaction- the person is either elated or despairing and their will be a degree of minimisation.
Self doubt- from desperation may come self doubt and dip in mood.
Letting go- after an element of denial the person gradually recognises that they need to put things behind them.
Testing- the person tries out new identities and new attachments.
Search for meaning- look at the past with a new viewpoint and reappraise it.
Integration- the transition process is complete and we are happy with our new identity.

Thus, “Advancement through the stages of the transition cycle is rarely smooth and continuous. Taking two steps forward and one step back…” (Sugarman, 1986 p145-146)

As mentioned previously how people deal with these transitions is in someway reliant on what resources they have available to them. A persons own individual characteristics such as confidence, self esteem and inner strength can help a person to deal with these transitions and are an excellent resource. This strength of character may have been influenced by how they have proceeded through the life course so far, how the have dealt with previous experiences, learning from them and are able to cope.

Sugerman identifies ‘a cluster of personality characteristics has been identified as being associated with more effective coping, including self esteem, self efficacy, mastery, internal locus of control, self confidence and flexibility.’ (Sugarman, 1986 p 156)

External resources such as friends, family, financial resources, material assets and a wide social support network all influence how we move through life’s transitions.

Different external resources will be applicable for all stages of the life course, younger children the playground, youth clubs and other social networks. Later on the G.P, counsellors and social services may be a resource that can be utilised by individuals.

Resources affect people’s transitions but also societal and cultural influences have a bearing on the life course. Society has its own perceptions on ageing and makes assumptions on this. For example the retirement age of 65, it assumes that people are no longer capable of making a contribution to the workforce.

For people in middle age, the loss of work may lead to age discrimination and a sense of loss and identity.

(Paul Baltes 1987) identified normative influences in our society people that allow the social transition to adulthood, such as defined legal ages to buy alcohol, get married or vote. Generations of family have seen different non normative influences such as world wars or economic depressions and these will all impact on how a person views their own life course. A person who was profoundly affected by this experience will have a completely different view than me today.

“A variation in life experience comes from historical forces that affect each generation somewhat differently.” (Bee, H ,1994 p4)

Each culture has its own expectations, standards and age patterns. For example in Kansas girls can marry at age 12 or 13 and in the Asian culture, extended families play a more prominent role.

“There is not a sizeable number of old people in Britain who are members of ethnic minority communities originating in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean and there is a common assumption among caring professionals that African-Caribbean and Asian old people won’t require the same level of support from public services as the white elderly because they will be cared for by their extended family” (Beckett, 2002)

Our own personal experiences help shape the person that we become. The beliefs and values I have are well rooted in my development. The life events that we experience have a bearing on our understanding and the way we perceive others. I come from a loving a caring family and was fortunate enough to have a stable upbringing. My family, friends, work colleagues and faith all shape the person that I am today. However assumptions should not be made that my life experiences will be the same for everyone else, as each person’s life events will be unique to them. My changes will not be the same as someone else.

It is important for me to have an awareness of my own development and the value basis that is instilled within me as throughout my work I will come into contact with people whose experiences are different to my own. There is a need to challenge stereotypes of age, not judge people against my value base and be anti oppressive in my practice.

Before I had children, I had no idea of what life was going to be about after this event. I have learnt that my own values that were formed by my parents, peers and society play an important part in how I bring them up.

Social workers need to know about human growth development to inform practice. Any intervention has an impact on a person’s life and being aware of transitions allows for an opportunity to change. Intervention is not neutral and the effects of this will vary from person to person and should be to encourage people to see change positively.

It is important that practice encompasses the service user’s rights to partnership, participation and empowerment.

Age related stereo types should be challenged and as this could lead to poor practice and judgemental attitudes.

The inquiry into the death of Jonathon Zitto by Christopher Clunis highlighted that Social Workers held assumptions and stereotypical views that contributed to incorrect intervention that then led to this tragedy.

A life span perspective would have indicated that his past behaviour could be used to predict future behaviours.

The inquiry into his death showed a ‘catalogue of failure and missed opportunities.’ Clinical Risk (2002)

In conclusion, a life course perspective takes a holistic view of the life course as offering opportunities for growth, development and change. Each person will have their own unique account of their lives and what events have been significant or influential to them.

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