The second aspect of Vygotskys theory is the notion that the cognitive development of the child is also dependant on the “zone of proximal development” (ZPD).
The gap between a learner’s current or actual level of development determined by independent problem solving and the learners emerging or potential level of development. That is, it is the set of knowledge that the learner has the ability to learn currently but does not yet under stand things that are “just out of reach”
Vygotsky believed that a child develops better with the help of adults, peers or mentors. Vygotsky claimed “what a child can do with assistance today, she will be able to do by herself tomorrow” (Vygotsky, 1978, pg 87)
Piaget would argue that cognitive development occurs in a series of stages, all of which occur in a specific order. The child develops though these stages, through the use of organisation, adaption and the creation of schema.
His theory involved four stages of cognitive development.
Sensorimotor Stage (Infancy) – in this period (which has 6 stages), intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because it is based on physical interactions / experiences. Children acquire object permanence at about 7 months of age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities. Some symbolic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage.
Pre-operational Stage (Toddler and Early Childhood) – in this period (which has two sub-stages), intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a non-logical, non-reversible manner. Egocentric thinking predominates.
Concrete Operational Stage (Elementary and Early Adolescence) – in this stage (characterised by 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible). Egocentric thought diminishes.
Formal Operational Stage (Adolescence and Adulthood) – in this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric thought. Only 35% of high school graduates in industrialised countries obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally during adulthood.
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Bruners belief is that all learners should be allowed to explore experiment and discover new problems for themselves. Knowing that once they have solved the problem on there own, they will grasp a better understanding of it. Once the child begins to grasp the problem. ‘The teacher should support the child in performing certain activities. This may encourage the child to take the risk and may help him feel more secure. Instruction should aid children in their thinking’ .
Like Piaget, Bruner’s theory also involves stages. He believed that development was divided into three different stages, or modes of representation. Bruner stated that representation “is the way that we manage to keep hold of our past experiences” (Bruner, 1966, pg 11). The enactive mode of learning takes place by manipulation of objects and things. The iconic mode objects are represented by visual images. In the symbolic mode, symbols are used instead of objects or mental images.
A major difference between the theory of Piaget and Bruner is that whilst Piaget’s fourth stage ends at the end of childhood, Bruner’s theory states that whilst children pass through all three of his stages during childhood, the adult continues to use these three modes throughout life.
Bruner quoted that ‘any subject could be taught to any child at any age in some form that is honest’ ()
This is explained by Bruner in the use of prime numbers and how young children can be taught mathematical problems.
‘The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the child, through construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out in a single file or in an incomplete row-column design in which there is always one extra or one too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from this step to the recognition that a multiple table, so called, is a record sheet of quantities in completed multiple rows and columns. Here is factoring, multiplication and primes in a construction that can be visualised” ()
A widely discussed point of difference between each of the theories concerns their ideas on the role of language. Language for Piaget is “a system of symbols for representing the world and exerts no formative effects on the structure of thinking” (Wood, 1998, p26). As stated, Piaget believed mental actions and operations are stimulated by action, not talk. Piaget views pre-operational children, that is those between the ages of two and seven, as egocentric in the sense that their view of the world is always moulded around their immediate personal and sectional view. This egocentrism, he believes, is manifested in both a child’s thinking and talk.
For Piaget, the utterances made by a child under the age of seven are examples of this egocentricity. His observations led him to claim that children do not attempt to communicate with others or even try to adapt their speech so others can understand it. He observed that children of this age often talk to themselves in a fashion that cannot be regarded as communication. Similarly, he also suggested that playground collective monologues are not real conversations. He theorised that children are constrained by their logical budget; children under the age of seven cannot construct situations as they appear from another person’s viewpoint and are therefore incapable of holding a rational conversation. It is only when a child reaches the age of around seven and ‘de-centres’ that speech becomes more socialised.
Vygotsky’s view is quite different. For him, childhood speech was not egocentric but involved social interaction and communication skills. Vygotsky was interested in the emphasis of culture and social surroundings and this goes a long way to explain the emphasis he placed on language. In his opinion it represented an important cultural tool and furthermore it was through speech that the child developed as a thinker and learner. Vygotsky did recognise the presence of egocentric speech but noted that it is produced as a child struggles to deal with abstract ideas. It could therefore be stated that egocentric speech can be seen as a learning aid. Many adults revert to externalized monologues to solve complex tasks. Vygotsky suggested that it is these external monologues in children that later become internalised to form inner speech at around the age of seven, inner speech being the dialogue that becomes thought. He also observed that when a child was in a room where there was no proper listener, they produced far less egocentric speech. Vygotsky therefore concluded that “a totally egocentric creature would not be so sensitive to the presence of others “(Cohen, 2002, p65).
Vygotsky claims that the capacity to learn through instruction is a fundamental feature of human intelligence and furthermore is the main vehicle for the transmission of knowledge (Wood, 1998 p25). In contrast, Piaget suggests that a child under the age of seven cannot profitably be taught tasks and concepts because he is not mentally ready. According to Piaget, a child’s capacity to be taught and make logical sense of what they are shown is limited by their stage of development. For Piaget ‘genuine intellectual competence’ is only reached when the child can construct his own understanding of events. Piaget therefore believes development precedes learning whilst Vygotsky claims learning causes development. Evidently, this provokes a very different idea of mental readiness for learning and consequently has different implications for teaching.
Piaget’s theory and Bruners are similar in many ways. They have the same belief that cognitive development is done through stages, although Bruner says there should be no age restraints. They both believe that the best and easiest way for a child to learn is through self-discovery, and through the method the information is retrieved in greater depth also. However, were Piaget may be criticised is in the age restraining and the size of the age groups. He also does not allow for children advancing at different speeds and believes language is used just as an aid to development, were as Bruner says it is essential to development. Piaget also ignores the importance of social relationships, whereas Bruner says that interaction within the environment is essential within the process of cognitive development.
In Summary it should be remembered that children think differently from adults and there are major differences in the way children of different ages understand the world around them. Piager, Bruner and Vygotsky all showed that a child’s learning and understanding is influenced by the environment, society and culture, and individual abilities can be traced within the Zone of Proximal Development, but there are certain stages of development that all children, either with or without the assistance of adults will pass through. However, as stated previously this is dependant on the child’s own development and has to take into consideration things such as social surroundings, disabilities and the availability of peers, adults and mentors.
Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner have all produced theories which still influence the way children are raised in society today and whilst they have many contrasting ideas, there are also similarities in their work. It should also be remembered that whilst many have criticised the work and theories of Piaget he did create the first study into the cognitive development of children, and his theory encouraged many other psychologists into further studies of development.
References
Cohen D. 2002, How the child’s mind develops, Routledge,
Cox, C et al, 1982, The Right to Learn, Centre for Policy Studies,
Barton, L et al, 1985, Education and Social Change, Croom Helm Ltd,
Smith, P et al, 1998, Understanding Children’s Development (3rd Edition),
Vygotsky,L.S, 1978, Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
Wood, D. 1998, How children think and learn (Second Edition), Blackwell,
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