programming. Within the epigenetic view, development cannot be simply determined by genes or by the environment, but both genes (nature) and environment (nurture) play a role in the development of the individual’s mental capacity.
The nature side of the debate argues that a person maintains their mental ability only based on what they are born with genetically. This would mean that the environment in which this person is bought up in plays no role in determining their mental aptitude. There are some substantial reasons for humans to be persuaded that genetics play a large part in a person’s intelligence. It is obvious that genes provide humans with their own physical equipment, which is quintessence, their very “being”. Genes and chromosomes are passed down from generation to generations. Without heredity, we would have nothing to hand down biologically to our descendants, and this clearly is not the case.
Whether individual human traits and abilities are predetermined from birth or due to one’s upbringing and experiences is a consideration that psychologists have studied for a long time. A truly genetic position states that people are predisposed to become sociable, smart, cheerful, or depressed according to their genetic blueprint. In comparison, a strict environmental position says that parents, peers, cultural institutions, and life experiences shape people. The investigations into the following studies help to predict the role of genetic factors on development.
Twin studies have been carried on both on identical and non-identical twins to determine the comparative influence of heritability and environment. These studies determine the heritability of a trait; to what extent the differences among individuals are due to genes, rather than to environmental factors such as upbringing, nutrition and schooling. Plomin and Loehlin ( 1989) carried out various studies on identical twins and they seemed to indicate that heredity certainly does have a notable effect on person; these studies support the nature side of the debate. These studies although valuable in indicating that genetic influences play a role in influencing a persons trait can only be part of the story. Preferably the studies would need to follow subjects from before the child is born until adulthood collecting information on the external environmental factors such as nutrition, psychosocial and physical environments the participants interacted with, to make the studies more realistic.
Andrea K Lait V0049493
Adoptions studies have also been carried out to investigate if adopted children are more “genetically similarly to their adoptive parents than to their natural parents”, and this has been found to be the case, which also support the nurture side of the debate.
An additional example is that of John Bowlby’s (1959) Attachment Theory, which demonstrated that caregivers develop a close bond during the first year of the baby’s life and that if the mother-baby are forcibly separated they become quite distressed. This shown how humans have a "genetically determined psychological characteristic" that prejudices them to ‘bond’ with a particular caregiver.
On the other hand, many investigations have shown that a child’s environment plays a large role in their development. This may seem a less influential factor on one’s life, but considering the huge impact the environmental surroundings have on development, it warrants in depth examination. An enquiry carried out by The British National Child Development Study involving 16,000 children showed how the effects of belonging to a certain social class had an effect on the child’s reading development.
The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget saw developmental maturity to be a continuum during which the individual assimilates new information into prior experiences, mental structures and beliefs. According to this theory, active learning is an inherent characteristic of the human brain, therefore successful learning is self-directed. Piaget’s theory of intellectual development proposed that the inquiring young mind is not a clean sheet of paper waiting form knowledge to be painted upon, but the child actively constructs knowledge. Then when a child comes into contact with a piece of new information, he has to understand it in a way that fits into his already established view of the world. This may not make sense to the grown-ups but will make perfect sense to the children themselves.
Piaget’s theory known as “genetic epistemology” refers to the nature of knowledge and Piaget’s main interest was in how knowledge develops in human organisms. Although Piaget recognized that the genes had a position in development he also suggested that the environment (physical and social) has an important role in activating these natural structures that we are born with.
Andrea K Lait V0049493
According to Vygotsky , in terms of development and language in particular, this is made possible because of our culture (tools and symbols). The learning of which is brought about by social processes, and the language eventually make thought possible. Caregiver and baby start to communicate with each other vocally as well as visually during the first few months and it is this early pattern of mother-baby reciprocity and exchange, which is the basis on which subsequent language and communication extend. This ultimately depends on both biological and socio-environmental factors, playing an important role in early child development. A good example of environmental factors influencing development.
Another of Vykgotsky’s themes with envelopes the notion of environmental factors is that social interaction plays a vital role in the development of cognition. This leads into his idea that the potential for children to reach the height of their individual cognitive development depends upon the “zone of proximal development” (ZPD0 which children develop when engaged in social behaviour. What they can achieve and develop is greater with adult guidance or peer association, than what can be accomplished alone. A parent may encourage simple number games, for example by counting beads or shopping for example, filling in the numbers that the child cannot remember. As the child participates in these experiences on a daily basis, they gradually learn the culture’s practices, skills and values. Sociocultural theory highlights how children incorporate culture into their reasoning, social interaction, and self-understanding. It also explains why children growing up in different societies are likely to have significantly different skills. An example of how full cognitive development requires social interaction with the child’s environment.
Considering the evidence stated, it would be wrong to believe that one factor, either genetics or environment, determines a child’s developmental ability. It appears that both of these factors contribute to the child’s aptitude. Heredity, as well as environment plays an important role although not exactly equal in pressure. A child’s environment seems to be more able in determining development ability than heredity is. Through investigating this theme it seems heredity is a deterrmining factor of the child’s potential, but the environmental experiences determine how far that child will reach their full potential. It appears that nature designs the outline and initial stages
Andrea K Lait V0049493
of development and nurture modifies and refines development to fit into the environmental circumstances.
The in-ability to recognize which factor, nature or nurture, is responsible for any specific trait, but knowing that one or both of the two is responsible, will keep the argument of genetics vs. environment in the forefront of our search for answers for a long, long time.
I would conclude that both heredity and environment affect child development, and current research seems to suggest that environmental factors appear to have more sway. Genetics and the varying environmental issues that the child faces will determine to what extent their development progresses thus determining the child’s final mental abilities.
1530 Words
Andrea K Lait V0049493
References
Locke John (1632 –1704) Locke (1632-1704), cited in Chapter 1 “Images of Childhood and Theories of Development ; Das Gupta (1994) p.16
Darwin Charles (1809 – 82) Darwin (1809 – 82), cited in Chapter 1 “Images
Of Childhood and Theories of Development;
Das Gupta (1994) p 17, and Chapter 2 “ Evolution and Development; Ken Richardson (1994) p 60
Skinner B F (1904 – 90) Skinner B F (1904-90),cited in Chapter 1 “ Images of Childhood and Theories of Developent; Das Gupta (1994) p 22-23
Epigenetic Model Ken Richardson. (1994) Evolution and Development , in Oates, J (ed) The Foundation of Development, Oxford,Blackwell, The Open University.
Plomin and Loehlin ( 1989) ‘Direct and indirect IQ heritability estimates: a puzzle’, Behaviour Genetics, 19, pp. 331 – 42. cited in Ken Richardson ‘Interactions in Development’Chpt 6 p225 – 227.
John Bowlby (1959) John Oates ‘First Relationships, Chap 7, in Oates, J (ed) The Foundation of Developent, Oxford Blackwell, The Open University.
The British National Child
Developmnent Study Ken Richardson, (1994) Interactions in Development Chapter 6 p 233, in Oates, J (ed) The Foundation of Development, Oxford, Blackwell, The Open University
Web Sites