The Latent stage at the age of 6 was not considered a psychosexual stage but a quiet period. Freud believed this was a stage for repression of sexual desires and impulses. A child would focus on athletics, school and friendships this was important for social development, communication skills and building self-confidence.
During the final Genital stage at the age of 12 the interest is drawn back to the genitals and the child becomes interested in the opposite sex and the welfare of others unlike previous stages, themselves being the sole focus. At this final stage if all other stages have been completed successfully the conclusion will be a well balanced individual.
If a child becomes fixated at any stage within his psychosexual development he/she will struggle with repression and defences and find normal relationships with the opposite sex difficult.
When evaluating Freud’s theory there is an immediate problem that all of his explanations are androcentric (male focused) and ethnocentric (focused on one or own ethnic group) there being little mention of female psychosexual development other than the theory of ‘penis envy’ was much disputed by feminists notably Karen Horney (W. Glassman) believing it to be inaccurate and demeaning to women. Some critics would argue that penis envy suggests that Freud was fundamentally anti-women, however contrary to that belief he encouraged women analysts including his daughter.
Freud’s theories where based on the recollections of adult patients, not actual observations or study of children therefore this could not be remembered accurately and relied upon as scientific. (H. Eysenck)
There is a study of Hans a boy aged 3, who had a phobia of horses. Freud believed this case proved his theory of the Oedipus complex however it was felt that other explanations could be found. Bowlby’s explanation was of the attachment theory believing that Hans phobia arose from threats of the mother deserting the family. Another explanation was that he was classically conditioned to fear horses.
Freud argued that through the Oedipus complex boys identify with their fathers and this established their sexual identification and if this process could not take place, Freud considered a young child likely to grow up homosexual. (H. Eysenck) This theory is easily discredited as not all homes have both parents and this has not meant a child would automatically become homosexual.
In 1920 Malinowski believed that should Freud’s theory be correct there would be signs of the Oedipal complex in different societies. He lived within different villages in Trobriand and noted boys were disciplined and taught by their mothers’ brothers rather than their father. Malinowski observed that boys did have dreams such as the ones described by Freud but depicting their Uncles therefore he believed that there were two factors to account for, sexual jealously and power relations. Malinowski’s interpretation has also being challenged by Llechukwu in 1999 as dynamics are affected by cultural factors such as the mother traditionally sleeping with their sons and fathers’ having multiple wives. (W. Glassman)
Valentine also carried out a direct observation on the Oedipus complex where he issued sixteen psychologists and scientists a questionnaire to sum every point of view of male and female and all gave reasonable explanations of the facts, they supplied no evidence for the supposed Oedipus complex. (Hans Eysenck)
Critics of Freud argue that his theories are unreliable as they are not scientific and that he was selective with the data recorded. It was said that Freud’s notes were after therapy sessions not during, so they were retrospective. Another retrospective issue is that Freud asked adults about their childhood. Freud’s theories on libido are impossible to measure therefore cannot be tested or be considered scientific.
Karl Popper also criticized Freud’s theories as not being real science as scientific theories must be falsifiable. Popper argued that no experiment or observation could ever falsify Freud’s theories of the Oedipus complex as if someone denied the complex it is interpreted as repression and therefore could not be considered scientific.
Another Critique Dr. Von Schneidt suggested that most of Freud’s psychoanalytical theories where a by-product of his cocaine use which would enhance dopaminergic neurotransmission increasing sexual interest and obsessive thinking as well as having unresolved issues within the Oedipus complex.
There is no reason to assume that his ‘insights’ into his suffering are in any way relevant to assume that his ‘insights’ are in fact accurate. Evidence would be required to prove this, and this is precisely what is missing. (Hans Eysenck)
b) Discuss the usefulness of play therapy
Whilst looking at the usefulness of play therapy I will look to explain the reasons why therapy may be sought for children and what positive impact this can have their lives.
Play therapy dates back to 1919 when Hermine Hug-Hallworth carried out the first research and then 10 years later to Anna Freud and Melaine Klein. Most recently the work of Virgina Axline is recognised in play therapy and is seen as the most effective way of providing potential benefits, giving the child the opportunity to deal with conflicts in which it can tolerate and express effectively, assisting professionals to respond to the child’s needs. There are two types of therapy directive and non-directive which is also supported Carl Rogers.
Play for children, is linked to emotional development, this is a vital part in a child’s life and for most children and carers this happens naturally. Childs play assists children unconsciously to develop fully into well balanced individuals.
There are several people that would find Play therapy a useful form of understanding a child, ranging from Social Workers to those working with the under 5’s, teachers, psychologists, police, speech therapists, nurses, hospital play specialists. Play therapy is developed to work with parents as well as children.
Play therapy deals with unconscious levels as well as conscious, aiding the understanding of events. It is linked to aspects of physical, intellectual, social and emotional development. It would be essential to recognise the developmental level for which the child is at.
Some reasons a child may participate in Play therapy would be an unhappy family, he or she may have learning and or emotional difficulties, finding it difficult to deal with separation, bereavement or divorce this is when a child may go within. Therapy could be sought by recommendation of a Social worker, teacher or parent. Help may be sought because the child may not be responding very well or may be behaving in a way that no one understands.
When a child is introduced to Play therapy it is paramount that the child feels safe and secure, understanding that play therapy becomes a routine so that the child understands it has a beginning and end, that it is their “special time” (V. Axline).
When a child starts Play therapy they bring a ruffled ego (L. McMahon) being in therapy enables them to play it out in any way they wish. The aim would be that the time would be for the child to do as they wish giving them the feeling of complete autonomy creating their individual being enabling them to experiment, explore and create, giving them the choice of feeling thinking and doing for themselves realising their creativity, thus enabling them to access the healing power of play at their own pace. (L. McMahon)
Some children whilst in therapy will re-enact and repeat events often in symbolic play, linking feelings to objects such as dolls being people, playing out unconscious thoughts and fears. Children can express anger and aggression, realising they are in a temporary world and therefore having no fear of repercussions.
There are various forms of Play therapy from dance, clay, puppets, art, music, and more significantly known, Sand play therapy the contribution of Dora Kalff (1980) who created sand play as she felt it was of a child’s psyche giving therapists the ability to interpret the child’s use of symbols and placement of objects allowing observation to the child’s passage of healing.
Play Therapy enables children to communicate at their own level through play enabling professionals to understand how the child is operating, thinking and feeling. For younger or disabled children this may be their only way to communicate as sometimes they do not have the words or vocabulary to be understood by professionals whilst they are trying to establish important facts.
Whilst a child is assimilating this information they are sharing views on themselves, others and the world around them this then provides clues to their reality, desires whilst bridging the gaps of their inner world to reality for the therapist. (L. McMahan)
Play therapy is a method of natural self healing the aim being to help the child restore inner harmony, find their bearings through what started off messy for them, (V. Axline) enabling them to cope with the subsequent events that lead to the anxiety whilst empowering them to work out their own solutions.
There are different reasons for a child to undergo Play therapy. One reason may be suspected child abuse. When this is the case the play room would be set up with particular dolls that show female and male genitals also dolls resembling children. Therapists would be aware of certain words a child may use to describe certain types of abuse, male penetration being described as a knife in my belly. Therapists would use gentle probing questing asking “where do you sleep?”, “where does mummy sleep?”, where does daddy?” or “uncle Fred sleep?”, again letting the child take the lead and often waiting months or even never for this information. This information may be used in a child abuse case.
Another case for play therapy would be emotional hurt or lack of emotions and love like in the case of Dibs ‘In search of self’, a book written by Virgina Axline. This book refers to a little boy who was starved or love and emotion by his professional mother and father and was considered retarded because of his lack of inclusion at home and school with peers, family and teachers, however through play Dibs found himself, by acting out his frustrations with his father through symbolic play with dolls whilst discovering himself.
Play therapy is recognised as a very successful way of accessing a child’s mind and experiences in a way that deals with their unconscious, in an innocent and unobtrusive way. Unknowingly to the child it gradually releases them of their pain or experience of life, as they learn to express there speech and explanation in other symbolic ways. This is done in a way that is manageable to them, and at a pace that the child can cope with as well as enabling them to develop themselves at the same.
Bibliography
Word Count
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Books
Axline. V.M (1987) Play Therapy. Canada. Houghton Mifflin Company.
Axline. V.M ( 1990 ) DIBS: In search of self.
McMahon L. (1992) Play Therapy. London. Routledge
Eysenck H. (1985) Decline and fall of the Freuduan Empire. Middlesex. Penquin Books
Glassman H. (2004) Approaches in Psychology (4th Edition) Berkshire. Open Univeristy Press
Notes
Course notes from Brian Moody
Websites
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