MONTOGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT
The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a vital event in the progress of the Civil Rights Movement:
- It was a mass protest, involving all social groups in the black community
- It lasted for a long time and showed what could be achieved by disciplined non-violence
- It produced an outstanding leader, an important new organisation and a new philosophy
- It drew the attention of the north to the system of segregation in the south, and exposed the unreasonable behaviour of many southern white people. This was helped by the growing influence if television in the 1960’s.
- In company with the recent Brown decision, it raised the question of federal response to illegal acts of segregation and discrimination in the south
HOW FAR WAS RESISTANCE TO CIVIL EQUALITY OVERCOME IN THIS PERIOD?
- The sit-ins and freedom rides played a major part in bringing down some aspects of the ‘Jim Crow’ system in the south. Outside the Deep South they had a number of successes, especially in states like North Carolina, Texas and Tennessee
- In Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia and South Carolina, they made less impression. Many white people in these states were determined to resist the demands of both the protestors and the federal government.
- The movement’s tactics had not always been successful in getting change. Its support from the federal government, though increasing, was still patchy. The Kennedy administration was reluctant to intervene unless law and order was breaking down
- However, the movement learnt from its errors and now planned to target areas that would bring favourable results.
HOW SUCCESSFUL WAS THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT BETWEEN 1963 AND 1965
In terms of high drama and achievement, the years 1963 to 18965 could be seen as the most successful for the Civil Rights Movement:
- two successive US Presidents were committed to supporting the movement’s demands
- public opinion in the USA was swinging even further towards racial equality
- MLK reputation was at its height
- The passing of two important acts: the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act
However:
- there were signs of tension and potential division in the movement that were to become increasingly apparent in the next three years
- Only very limited progress had been made in improving the economics and social conditions of black American, especially in the north.
CHANGES IN THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT 1965-6
During these years, the Civil Rights Movement underwent the following important changes:
- there was a shift in emphasis from south to north
- concern focused increasingly on social and economic question rather than legal and political ones
- a serious challenge was mounted to the non-violent and Christian-based beliefs of the movement
- new leaders emerged who would challenge the dominance of MLK
- Some of the hard-won sympathy that the movement had received from the federal government ended.
DID BLACK POWER HELP OR HINDER THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT?
- BLACK POWER certainly influenced MLK, who became increasingly concerned with emphasising that black people had plenty to be proud of. He also stressed the importance of tackling social and economic questions, as well as voting and segregation issues. Black Power had helped to force these up the agenda
- It gave the black community a greater sense of pride and confidence in their race and its culture. Black literature, music, theatre, fashion and food all flourished during the 1970’s
However:
- Black Power bought division to the movement, as some campaigners developed increasingly militant policies and groups like SNCC were broken by the strain.
- By accepting violence, the supporters of Black Power undermined King’s policy of maintaining the moral high ground and lost much of the white sympathy he had worked so hard to gain. Of course, many of them made clear they had no desire for this support.
- Despite one or two attempts, such as Stokeley Carmichael’s book of 1969, it was never entirely clear exactly what Black Power’s political aims were. Did they want a separate state? Did they wish to return to Africa, or stage a revolution and overthrow white rule altogether? This led to confusion in the ranks.
WHY DID KING VISIT MEMPHIS?
King’s visit to Memphis proved fatal. Why had he gone there? The answer is revealing. He was supporting the black dustmen who were on strike for equal treatment with white dustmen. King led a protest march, which turned violent. Upset, he vowed to return to lead a better, more peaceful one. It was while preparing for this second effort that he was assassinated. This shows that by 1968:
- King was finding it more difficult to control civil rights demonstrators, as violence was becoming increasingly apparent
- Social and economic issues, such as equal pay, were seen as increasingly important, but the problems had not been solved
However:
- although his leadership was being challenged, many towns still wished to call him in to lead their protest
- King still held fast to non-violence as an absolute principle
ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE MOVEMENT BY 1968
By 1968, black civil rights had progressed a long way in just a quarter of a century,
- Segregation in public places had disappeared from all but the most resistant part of the Deep South. This was a remarkable achievement in so short space of time
- Most transport facilities were now thoroughly integrated
- Far more black people were registered to vote
- Racial integration of school was now proceeding in many states. Where housing patterns discouraged this, the possibility of bussing students from one area to another to achieve a racial mix had been suggested for the first time
- Armed forces integration was well established and black people were starting to rise to high rank within them
- Black people were rising to high office in many different walks of American life
- The principle of equality was now thoroughly accepted by the great majority of the American public
However:
- black voter registration was still lower than white
- some parts of Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia and South Carolina maintained segregation in public areas, such as bus terminals
- Major economic and social problems remained for black people in both the north and the south
- The Civil Rights Movement itself was weakened and divided over tactics. Its two greatest spokesmen had been assassinated.