-
Contagion= people would not come into contact with an infected person
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Poisoning wells= People believed that the Jews had poisoned the wells ∴ Many Jews were burnt alive
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Punishment from God= Groups of people called Flagellants whipped themselves in the hope of God forgiving them of their sins so they would not catch the Black Death
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Four Humours= people believed that if the four humours were balanced then, you would not catch the Black Death
Medical Renaissance (1500-1650)
- There was LARGE Medical Progress
-
Ambroise Pare (a French Surgeon)
- Andreas Vesalius (Professor at Padua)
- William Harvey (an English Doctor)
Why was there such a huge improvement in medicine in the Renaissance period?
-
Interest in the Ancient world= people provided ancient medical theories and were interested in Galen’s original books
-
Desire to portray the Human Body more Accurately= Artists carried out dissections in order to find about more about the human body/anatomy
-
Interest in the Natural word= interested in finding out about animals and plants
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Willingness to question accepted authority= people began to question Galen’s work and found mistakes (i.e. He dissected on animals)
Ambroise Pare:
-
Treatment of Gunshot wounds: They used to be treated by pouring oil on them BUT this was inhumane and pare found a better way of healing gunshot wounds (see below)
-
When? = 1536 (during the Italian wars)
-
Where? = On the battle field in the Italian Wars
-
What? = He ran out of boiling oil in the battlefield during the Italian Wars ∴ He created an ointment made of oil of rose, turpentine and egg yolk. He applied it to the wound and it turned out to be a better cure for gunshot wounds
Factors, which enabled him to make this advancement:
-
Chance: He ran out of boiling oil
-
Role of War: The Italian Wars
-
Medical Renaissance
-
Need: Many people were still dying from gunshot wounds and it (boiling oil) was an inhumane way of treating them
-
Pare’s Personality: He knew the importance of experimenting (much like Edward Jenner, see later ;>)
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Stopping Bleeding by sealing wounds: Wounds used to be sealed by a hot cautery iron BUT Pare found a more humane way of sealing the wounds using a Knife, a crow’s beak and double thread.
-
When? = 1575
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What? = Pare fed the patient with eggs and bread. He then used a KNIFE to amputate the limb. He then sewed the veins and arteries to STOP BLEEDING. He then used a CROWS BEAK to retrieve the ends of the vessels and then bound them together with DOUBLE THREAD ∴ MORE HUMANE
-
Proved that Bezoar was NOT a universal cure for poison: Bezoar used to be used as a cure for poison BUT Pare discovered that it could not cure poison
What? = He gave a man who was about to be hanged some poison and then gave him some Bezoar. He died shortly afterwards ∴ Pare showed that Bezoar was not a cure for poison
Andreas Vesalius:
-
He was a professor at Padua at a young age ∴ extremely determined and intelligent
-
He was very interested in Galen and disproving his theories
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In 1538, he published 6 anatomical drawings ∴ this was a new concept, his anatomy description was backed up by anatomical drawings
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In 1540, he staged a famous public dissection at Bologna where he firstly dissected a dog, and then he dissected a human body. He proved that Galen’s idea about the human body having two jawbones was WRONG. ∴ he showed Galen’s books were based on his dissections on animals
-
In 1543, he published the ‘Fabric of the Human Body’ which was a complete anatomy backed up with anatomical drawings based on human dissection.
Importance of the ‘Fabric of the Human Body’:
-
It provided a complete anatomy based on Human dissections ∴ progress made
-
The fabric of human body was backed up with anatomical drawings which was a new concept ∴ Progress made
-
It corrected Galen’s mistakes ∴ Progress made
-
He double-checked the writing before it was printed to make sure everything was printed correctly ∴ Progress in medicine could be made
His views on the movement of Blood in the body:
He doubted the existence of holes in the septum ∴ doubted Galen’s ideas of holes in the septum but did not know how blood circulated the body
William Harvey:
-
He studied under Fabricius at Padua
-
He announced the circulation of blood
-
He wrote his book, ‘On the movement of the Heart and blood in animals” in 1628
His work:
-
He proved no blood flows through holes in the septum ∴ disproved Galen
-
He carried out dissections on frogs to prove that blood flows in one direction only
-
He stated that there is a fixed amount of blood in the body
-
He stated that blood goes to the heart via the veins and goes away from the heart via the arteries
Reasons for his Breakthrough:
- Studying under Fabricius
-
Learning from Padua
- Vesalius’ work
-
He was curious and knew the importance of experimenting (i.e. the dissection of frogs to show blood flows in one direction only)
-
I.e. willingness to challenge old ideas (i.e. Harvey disproved Galen and stated that blood did not pass through holes in the septum and Artists carried out dissections to find out more about the anatomy)
-
New Inventions: Such as the firepump, which Harvey used to show worked in similar way to Heart
The Great Plague in 1665
-
Advancements in medicine made in the Renaissance seemed to be OF NOTHING ∴ Medicine digressed again
-
The theories of disease were similar to the Black Death in 1348
-
Apart from Contagion, all theories of disease were supernatural, such as Punishment from god, bad air, the position of planets and insects in the air
Medicine in the 18th Century
Medicine advanced again!
Impact of Science
-
Invention of the microscope ∴ doctors could look closer at the anatomy
-
Better education ∴ Medical students were taught better as Medicine became a respected profession ∴ Doctors were more knowledgeable
-
Advancements in chemistry ∴ gave Doctors new ideas about how the body worked
Impact of the Industrial Revolution:
-
Better communications built (i.e. railways, cars etc) ∴ Medical ideas were spread more easily
-
Development of technology and engineering
Edward Jenner and Vaccination (1798):
-
He discovered vaccination in 1798
How did he discover it?
-
Sarah Nelmes (a cow maid) caught cowpox
-
Edward Jenner then took a sample of pus from Sarah Nelmes and infected James Phipps with it
-
James Phipps got ill as he had cowpox
-
Edward Jenner then took a sample of pus from a smallpox patient and infected James Phipps with it
-
James Phipps did not catch smallpox ∴ VACCINATION DISCOVERED
What Enabled Vaccination to be discovered?
NEED: the Government realised many people were dying from smallpox (even Monarchs) ∴ a vaccination was needed. 9/10 people caught smallpox and of those 10% died
INOCULATION: this led to a vaccination being discovered, as it was similar to vaccination. A mild form of smallpox was scratched into the persons bloodstream, they were then kept in a warm room until the symptoms disappeared BUT, many people still died from inoculation but it led to vaccination.
Edward JENNER (individuals): He understood the importance of scientific observation and experimenting from studying under John Hunter (a famous surgeon). He was also aware of a local belief that cow maids did NOT catch smallpox.
DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE: Physics had improved ∴ microscopes were more advanced. Chemistry had also improved ∴ doctors knew more about the anatomy
BETTER MEDICAL EDUCATION: Medical students were taught better as medicine became a respected profession ∴ Doctors were more knowledgeable
Opposition of Vaccination:
Who opposed it?
-
Inoculators (would lose a lot of money)
-
The anti-vaccine society (Fears about Jenner using cowpox to prevent smallpox)
-
The general public (questioned it as it was a new idea)
Why did they oppose it?
-
Inoculators would lose a lot of money because of vaccination
-
Jenner COULD NOT EXPLAIN HIS THEORY because the germ theory had not been discovered
-
Like all new ideas, it was questioned by the general public
-
The Anti-vaccine society had fears of Jenner using cowpox to prevent smallpox
-
Edward Jenner was a country doctor
Why was it Accepted Eventually + Who Supported it?
-
The Royal Family
-
The Government
- Napoleon
REMEMBER- It was accepted because the statistics proved that it worked and the number of deaths from smallpox was reduced significantly
In 1872, vaccination was made compulsory and strictly enforced !
Discovery of the Germ Theory:
Spontaneous Generation Theory: People used to believe germs were the RESULT of disease and NOT the cause (before Louis Pasteur’s germ theory in 1864)
Louis Pasteur’s Germ Theory: He carried out a public experiment in 1864 using a swan neck flask to show that germs were the CAUSE of disease
He was extremely determined, he began working on the Anthrax germ in 1877 after a brain haemorrhage BUT he was told to stop by the French Government and work on the Chicken cholera microbe/germ as it was killing chickens and losing farmers a lot of money in France.
He had a fierce rivalry with Robert Koch, a German doctor who linked each germ/microbe to a particular disease. This was because of the Franco-Prussian war between Germany and France in which France had lost. ∴ they were both urged on by it, and wanted to win prestige for their country (i.e. the French government funded Pasteur’s research team).
Pasteur found vaccines for:
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Chicken cholera in 1880
-
Anthrax in 1881
-
Rabies in 1885
Robert Koch:
-
He was more intellectual than Pasteur because he linked each germ to a certain disease ∴ more knowledgeable BUT, he failed to produce a vaccine for Anthrax ∴ could argue Louis Pasteur was more experimental
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He indentified the microbes for Anthrax, TB and Cholera
Koch’s Importance:
-
He indentified the microbe for Anthrax in 1875 by studying the blood of anthrax-infected mice. He extracted their blood and re-infected the mice ∴ He got a pure sample of the anthrax microbe
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He also indentified the microbes for Tuberculosis (TB) and Cholera
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He developed a solid culture called AGAR JELLY, which he could breed colonies of the microbes. It was also more reliable than Pasteur’s liquid culture.
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He used industrial dyes to stain the microbes so they could be seen under the microscope
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He attached a camera lens to his microscope to PHOTOGRAPH the microbe
Pasteur’s Discoveries/Experiments:
Chicken Cholera, 1880
Background info: It was definitely needed, the government told Pasteur to stop working on the vaccination for Anthrax after he began work on it in 1877; French poultry farmers were losing a lot of money because chickens were dying. Also Pasteur had read of Koch’s achievements and wanted to win prestige for France.
-
Pasteur’s research team developed a liquid culture for the cholera microbe to grow in
Batch A:
-
Pasteur gave a member of his research team, Charles Chamberlain, the liquid culture but he went on holiday and forgot to inject the chickens with it. ∴ The culture was exposed to air and he injected the First batch of chickens with the culture when he returned from holiday = They did NOT DIE
-
Pasteur then told him to inject the chickens with a stronger, fresh culture BUT, they still did NOT DIE
Batch B:
-
Pasteur then left a liquid culture exposed to air and injected a new batch of chickens with it. He then injected the same chickens with a fresher and stronger culture. The chickens did NOT DIE
Batch C:
-
Pasteur then injected a new batch with the stronger, fresher culture only. They DIED ∴ Vaccine was created. Chickens, which were exposed to the weaker culture, first did not die. This is the process of Attenuation.
Anthrax, 1881:
Background Info: It took place in 1881 in a farm in France. He was given 60 sheep to work with.
-
His research team produced a weakened strain of Anthrax
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25 were vaccinated then given the deadly anthrax germs = did NOT DIE
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25 were just given the deadly anthrax germs= DIED
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10 were used as a control in the experiment= stayed the same because they were a control
∴ Vaccine Created
Rabies, 1885:
-
Pasteur carried out a series of injections on rabbits spines that had been drying for 14 days and used the process of attenuation to get a gradual increase of the strength of germs which would lead to immunity BUT, Pasteur was unsure
-
Chance happening? Pasteur’s team got lucky when a young boy called Joseph Meister who had been bitten by a dog needed treating. ∴ Pasteur gave him a series of injections and he did NOT DIE from rabies ∴ Vaccine created
Discovery of Penicillin (the World’s First anti-biotic)
- 3 individuals helped develop penicillin:
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Ernst Chain (a Jewish refugee and a key part of Florey’s research team)
-
Howard Florey (head of the research team)
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Alexander Fleming (worked in a military hospital in Boulogne)
Stage 1: Flemings ‘Discovery’:
-
He did NOT discover/invent penicillin as it is a natural substance (i.e. mould).
-
1914: Fleming spent time working in a military hospital in Boulogne where he was frustrated that antiseptics such as carbolic acid could not stop infection in deep wounds
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1928: he made a chance discovery of penicillin in his lab BUT he could NOT ISOLATE the germ-killing substance in the mould
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1929: he published an article about how mould can be used to get rid of unwanted laboratory germs BUT failed to recognise its wider use in saving lives!
Flemings Chance Discovery in 1928:
-
The culture dish became contaminated with a rare mould while he was away
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He strangely did NOT incubate this culture dish unlike others
-
The culture dish was left UNDISTURBED for two weeks in his lab
-
The weather happened to cold ∴ the perfect conditions for mould to grow and bacteria to be killed
Stage 2: Howard Florey and Ernst Chain: Development
Background info: Howard Florey= he was a professor of pathology and the head of the research team
Ernst chain= he was a Jewish refugee and a key part of Florey’s research team
1938: Florey’s research team wanted to study natural substances that kill bacteria. Ernst Chain then read Fleming’s articles on penicillin ∴ the research team produced a pure sample of penicillin to test on mice
May 1940: They conducted a successful test on mice that had been given penicillin ∴ the mice did NOT DIE
HOWEVER, Florey’s research team could not produce penicillin in large amounts because they did not have the resources ∴ They had to produce penicillin in milk bottles and milk churns by a process called Freeze-Drying which was developed by Ernst chain
October 1940: Florey’s research team carried out the first test of penicillin on a human dying policeman. It turned out to be successful BUT the supplies of penicillin ran out ∴ the Policeman died, but it shows that it was successful in saving lives
Stage 3: Mass Production
-
Mass production was the main problem Howard Florey’s research team faced. It was unlikely British chemical firms would invest in mass producing penicillin because Britain was fully engaged in World War II at the time ∴ the British chemical firms were too busy producing explosives
∴ Florey visited America to try to convince the US chemical firms to invest in mass-producing penicillin.
1941: Florey’s first attempt to convince US chemical to invest in penicillin was UNSUCCESFUL
BUT…
December 1941: America entered the war after the Japanese attack on pearl Harbour ∴ Florey’s second attempt to convince the US chemical firms to invest in mass production of penicillin was SUCCESSFUL
1943: Mass production of penicillin starts in Britain
1944: Penicillin was used to treat soldiers on D-DAY ∴ many lives were saved
Factors in the Development of Penicillin:
Chance: Alexander Flemings discovery of penicillin BUT could argue that it was Fleming’s medical research and ability that led to the discovery
War and Government: The US and British government put large sums of money into mass-producing penicillin and without the governments, penicillin would NOT have saved as many lives. Obviously, the war played a factor BUT Howard Florey said they were not doing their research for war; they were doing for the development of science.
Communications: Transatlantic travel was used to fly Howard Florey over to America to convince the US chemical firms
Individuals and Florey’s Research Team:
-
Fleming: carried out medical research which helped him identify penicillin in his lab (even though he failed to recognise its wider use in saving lives)
-
Howard Florey and Ernst Chain: Extremely determined after the first unsuccessful attempt at convincing US chemical firms in 1941. Ernst chain read Fleming’s articles on penicillin in 1938 and devised the Freeze-drying strategy to produce penicillin ∴ he was important
HOWEVER, without the other factors, the development of penicillin could not have been possible. Although, Ernst Chain stated that even without Fleming, they would still have carried out their work (because of their love for science), but it would have taken longer.
Roles in Medicine
Role of Government:
-
Roman medicine: Public Health
-
Pasteur’s Research Team: Funded by the Government because France wanted to win prestige over Germany after they had just lost in the Franco-Prussian wars
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Edward Jenner: Vaccination was made compulsory and strictly enforced in 1872
-
Penicillin: US and British governments put large sums of money into mass production of Penicillin
Role of War:
-
Mass development of Penicillin
-
Pare (created the ointment for treating gunshot wounds during the Italian wars)
-
Pasteur and Koch rivalry: They were spurred on by the Franco Prussian wars as each one wanted to win prestige for their country
Role of Chance:
-
Alexander Fleming’s chance discovery
-
Pare: ran out of boiling oil by chance during the Italian wars
-
Pasteur’s Experiments: Charles Chamberlain (member of Pasteur’s research team) left the liquid culture exposed to air by chance AND Joseph Meister (the young boy) came to Pasteur after he had been bitten by a dog ∴ Chance
Revolution of Surgery (19th Century):
Anaesthetics:
Nitrous Oxide:
-
Horace Wells was the man who discovered it
-
He discovered it at a fair in 1845 where he saw it made people feel no pain and laugh
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Cons: when testing it, he found that some people are immune to it
Ether:
-
William Morton (An American doctor) persuaded John Warren (the Head of Boston Hospital) to carry out a public operation using Ether. John Warren then successfully removed a tumour from the patient without the patient feeling pain while under Ether
-
This public operation took place in 1846 ∴ Ether was discovered as an anaesthetic in 1846
-
Cons: it was inflammable, irritated lungs when inhaled and smelt bad ∴ it was disliked by many doctors including James Simpson (see chloroform)
Chloroform:
-
James Simpson and two other doctors found out about the effects of Chloroform. It was quicker and less was needed ∴ was successful
-
It was extremely popular with surgeons UNTIL 1900 where people realized it could damage the liver ∴ surgeons started using Ether again
Factors, which led to the discovery of Anaesthetics:
-
Need: Many people were still feeling pain during operations in the 18th century and ∴ many died from the shock of the operation ∴ Anaesthetics were needed
-
Individuals: i.e. Horace wells, William Morton: he persuaded the Head of Boston to carry out the public experiment ∴ he was determined and James Simpson carried out research into the effects of chloroform
-
Development of Science: (see medicine on the brink page) i.e. Chemistry improved, physics improved, better engineering and development of technology and medicine became a better profession ∴ people were taught better
Opposition to Anaesthetics:
-
People were worried about overdosing and other side effects (i.e. Ether caused explosions as it was flammable)
-
Members of the Church in Scotland were outraged at the use of Chloroform during childbirth as the bible stated that women should feel pain during childbirth
-
They were also opposed because surgeon was in COMPLETE CONTROL of the patient ∴ He/she could do dodgy things
-
Some officers in the army disliked the use of anaesthetics claiming they were ‘Not manly enough’
Why was Anaesthetics Eventually Accepted?
-
Because Queen Victoria had used Chloroform during her childbirth ∴ Anaesthetics became socially acceptable as she said it was delightful. She said this in 1853.
Antiseptics:
Background info: This was a result of the problem of infection. The period of surgery between1846 to 1870 is known as the Black Period. It is called the Black Period because surgeons carried out operations using anaesthetics in UNHYGENIC CONDITIONS ∴ many patients died from infections after the surgery
Joseph Lister:
-
He had read Pasteur’s work on the Germ theory and realised infections killing patients were caused by germs
∴ He decided to use CARBOLIC SPRAY to kill any germs present. He sprayed it in the air, on the patient, the instruments and the surgeon’s hands ∴ the DEATH RATE FELL
Factors that led to the Discovery of Antiseptics:
Need:
-
Many people were still dying during the Black period of Surgery as surgeons relied on anaesthetics and did not have an idea of cleanliness before Pasteur’s germ theory ∴ many patients died from infection after the operation
Individuals:
-
He made a connection between carbolic acid used in the sewers to being used in the operating theatres.
-
He also read Louis Pasteur’s germ theory research.
Development of Science:
-
An increase in chemistry meant Lister could spray carbolic acid (carbolic spray) due to the development of the steam pump!
Pasteur’s Germ Theory:
Joseph Lister did research on Pasteur’s germ theory in 1864, which stated that germs were the CAUSE OF DISEASE. ∴ it led Joseph Lister to realise that people were dying from infection because of germs.
Why was Antiseptics Opposed?
-
LAZY doctors and nurses disliked it because they had to work harder in sterilising equipment etc
-
Many people still did NOT believe in the germ theory because it challenged the spontaneous generation theory (Theory that germs were the result of disease NOT the cause of disease)
-
The antiseptics were UNPLEASANT for doctors (i.e. the smell)
Aseptic Surgery:
Background info: It advanced from antiseptic surgery, which had its drawbacks because it often irritated lungs and burnt skin. Aseptic surgery is a means of keeping germs away, rather than trying to fight germs. Aseptic surgery is used today in the operating theatre and was developed by German scientist, Ernst Bergmann.
Ernst Bergmann:
-
He was a German scientist
-
He developed aseptic surgery by passing steam over the instruments and therefore killing all the germs.
William Halsted:
-
He was an American Surgeon
-
He asked an American rubber company to produce rubber gloves to be used in the operating theatre after the chemicals that were used to sterilise her hands were causing skin irritation. Halston then issued for caps, masks and gowns to be worn.
Public Health:
Cholera Epidemic 1831-32:
-
1831: Local health boards were set up to prevent cholera
-
∴ 1831-1832= 21,000 people in Britain died of cholera
19th Century views on Cholera:
- They believed it spread by:
-
Miasma: i.e. spreads in the air
-
Contagion: i.e. contact with another person
Reasons for Improving Public Health after the Cholera Epidemic (Which led to the 1st public Health act in 1848):
Yes:
-
Because recorded the statistics for death and showed that disease was worse near water-born areas
-
Edwin Chadwick published a report in 1842 which stated that improving people’s health will SAVE THE COUNTRY MONEY by reducing sickness in factories
-
There were reports of a return of cholera ∴ YES side overweighed the NO side
No:
-
The cost was too much as poor people did NOT pay tax
-
Laissez-Faire meaning people wanted to Government NOT TO INTERFERE in public health
-
∴ As a result of this the 1st public Health act in 1848 was set up, although this health act failed as it was NOT CUMPULSORY.
Need for State Intervention into Public Health:
-
John Snow: He published a report showing that Cholera was a water-born disease in 1854 ∴ people who drank from the Thames caught cholera but those who drank from springs did not
-
Louis Pasteur’s Germ Theory, 1864: He showed that germs were the CAUSE OF DISEASE ∴ there was a need for cleanliness
-
Second Public Health Act, 1875:
- Brought together all previous laws
- Councils needed provide clean water, drainage and basic sanitary conditions
Reasons for the NHS (set up in 1945):
-
World War II (most important reason):
-
There were food shortages in the war so the Government stated children should be fed well!
-
Government set up an emergency health service to help with the casualties from the air raids ∴ it proved to be very successful
-
Many evacuees did not know about health i.e. (urinating on streets)
-
The Beveridge report in 1942:
- Stated that the Government should provide Healthcare for ALL members of society not just the rich!
For example, cuts and bruises were covered with animal fat and bound up with bark
Arun Thind
The medicine man would try to locate this bone and draw the bad spirit
Arun Thind
She was a pregnant hippopotamus (the goddess of Childbirth) who was worn in an amulet to ward off evil spirits during childbirth for women
Arun Thind
The process of mummification of a person after death. The body is soaked in various oils and salts before being wrapped up in bandages. The main internal organs were also taken out as they would rot in the tomb∴ Egyptians had a good understanding of anatomy even though they were not allowed to dissect the main internal organs
Arun Thind
REMEMBER: with the help of Aristotle, a Greek Thinker, who stated that an inbalance of one of the humours was the cause of disease.
Arun Thind
They believed that an imbalance of these humours, would CAUSE disease Not a SYMPTOM of disease. Scientists could prove the four humours at the time, because in Winter it is cold, so you will produce more Phlegm ∴ there is an imbalance of the four humours so a person is more likely to get disease
Arun Thind
Build on the Egyptians version of examining the patient
Arun Thind
Many of his books did NOT SURVIVE because they clashed with religions ∴ were burnt. Galen therefore made progress because he used the word ‘Creator’ to describe God.
Arun Thind
REMEMBER: Hippocrates didn’t really know about anatomy because dissection at Alexandria was not allowed in his time
Arun Thind
People who were ill would normally spend one night there praying to Asclepios and then hope to get treated.
Arun Thind
Seemed to reject supernatural theories of medicine unlike the Greeks who kept alive supernatural theories by the Asclepions.
Arun Thind
Comes down to 2 main reasons: ENABLING factors and NEED.
Arun Thind
FACT that comes in handy later on in the Medical renaissance- he stated that blood passed from one side of the heart to another by holes in the septum. But Vesalius doubted it and William Harvey proved him wrong.
Arun Thind
He was a powerful and persuasive man and was not afraid to prove anyone wrong about his theories
Arun Thind
This extremely bad public health therefore led to the Black Death in 1348
Arun Thind
This was from 1500-1650. There was LARGE MEDICAL PROGRESS with the likes of Ambroise Pare, Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey.
Arun Thind
DON’T GET CONFUSED- he made 3 huge changes to surgery not medicine itself.
Arun Thind
He ran out of boiling oil by chance ∴ he made an ointment made of oil of rose, egg yolk and turpentine. He applied it to the gunshot wound and it turned out to be a better cure.
Arun Thind
i.e. willingness to challenge old ideas etc
Arun Thind
With Vesalius, remember 3 key dates= 1538 (published 6 anatomical drawings), 1540 (public dissection at Bologna), 1543 (published the ‘Fabric of the Human body’)
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He had stolen corpses from people being hanged to study their bodies
Arun Thind
Galen stated that blood passed from one side of the heart to another in holes in the septum BUT Vesalius doubted this. However, William Harvey was the one who proved Galen wrong.
Arun Thind
Only need to remember one date for his breakthrough. Remember that he wrote his book, ‘On the movement of the heart and blood in animals’ in 1628. ALSO remember, he came AFTER PARE AND VESALIUS
Arun Thind
Learning from the work of others at Padua and Fabricius helped Harvey discover the circulation of blood
Arun Thind
He did four main things. Remember 4 main things. He said no blood flows through holes in the septum, he stated there is a fixed amount of blood in the body, he stated that blood flows in one direction only (dissected frogs), and he said blood goes to the heart by veins and leaves by arteries.
Arun Thind
It was as though, the work of Pare, Vesalius and Harvey had been forgotten!
Arun Thind
REMEMBER: These two are the only different theories to the Black Death in 1348. In the Black death, instead of position of planets and insects in the air, they had poisoning of wells by Jews and an inbalance of the Four Humours
Arun Thind
Happened in the late 18th century, and it also led to improvements in medicine
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Remember, his discovery IN 1798 involves 3 people. Sarah Nelmes (a cow maid), James Phipps (a young boy) and a Smallpox patient (to infect James Phipps after he caught cowpox)
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FACT- Edward Jenner was aware of a local belief that cow maids did not catch smallpox)
Arun Thind
REMEMBER: 5 main reasons: need, inoculation, Edward Jenner, Development of Science (in the 18th century) and Better Medical education (medicine became a respected profession)
Arun Thind
This was important in 1872, because before although vaccination had been made compulsory it was not strictly enforced but after the government strictly enforced it, the number of deaths from smallpox reduced.
Arun Thind
This was his swan neck flask experiment. He used a swan-neck flask to trap germs in the neck. He heated the liquid and he noticed the liquid in the flask stayed pure because the germs had been trapped ∴ Realised germs were the cause of disease
Arun Thind
REMEMBER- Louis Pasteur lacked the medical knowledge that Robert Koch had. Louis Pasteur had shown a connection between germs and disease but Robert Koch had linked a particular germ to a particular disease ∴ Robert Koch was more intellectual
Arun Thind
This is how the role of war played a part in enabling Pasteur and Koch to succeed
Arun Thind
Only need to remember one date for Robert Koch- 1875, he identified the microbe for anthrax and got a pure sample of it
Arun Thind
Used 3 batches of chickens. Batch A= injected with weak culture and then a strong culture. But, still did NOT DIE. Batch B= repeated experiment, chickens did not die.
Batch C= Pasteur injected a new batch with just the stronger, fresher culture ∴ they died
Arun Thind
He is the only character (apart from Pasteur) in this experiment you have to remember, well, that is apart from the Anthrax experiment
Arun Thind
This is an example of Chance affecting medical progress. It was by chance that Charles Chamberlain had forgot to inject the chickens with the liquid culture
Arun Thind
Here, Pasteur basically repeated the same experiment he did with Batch A (well, he told Chamberlain to inject the new Batch with a stronger, fresher culture)
Arun Thind
Robert Koch also tried to produce a vaccine for Anthrax but he FAILED ∴ Although Robert Koch was more intellectual than Louis Pasteur, Louis Pasteur had the backing of a research team and was more experimental.
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This, as well as the Chicken cholera vaccination experiments, are the only ones were Chance comes into play. ALSO, the process of attenuation is used here to achieve a gradual increase in the strength of the germs.
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This is in inverted commas because Fleming did NOT discover or invent penicillin as penicillin is a NATURAL SUBSTANCE (i.e. mould)
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DON’T GET CONFUSED, BOULONE is different from Bologna where Vesalius carried out his famous public dissection to prove Galen was wrong
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Which Ernst chain later read (see stage 2)
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REMEMEBER- there are 4 chance factors! Also remember, that Fleming failed too see its wider use in saving lives unlike Ernst Chain and Howard Florey
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Therefore Ernst Chain was extremely important in this second stage. He not only had come across Flemings articles about penicillin, he also devised the Freeze-Drying process to produce the penicillin in Milk churns and milk bottles etc
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This was by transatlantic travel ∴ Communications helped the development of Penicillin. REMEMBER- his first attempt was unsuccessful but his second attempt at convincing the US chemical firms was successful
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Role of US and UK government: they made grants available and put in large sums of money for chemical firms to produce penicillin.
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Despite Howard Florey and Ernst Chain being much more influential in the development of penicillin. Fleming had been doing medical research and although his finding of penicillin was by CHANCE, it was also down to his medical research beforehand and abilities.
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However, (see above page) Fleming had been doing medical research before and so it was not completely by chance he indentified the germ-killing mould (penicllin)
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This was in the 19th Century
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Drugs given to the patient to make the patient pain-free.
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Nitrous oxide is laughing gas. It had been discovered before Horace wells by a man called Humphrey Davey but this was IGNORED by the medical profession
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Discovery of Ether involves 3 People: John Warren (the Head of Boston Hospital), William Morton (an American Doctor) and the patient to whom they removed the tumor from.
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Chloroform was also popular due to the Royal Seal of Approval when Queen Victoria used chloroform during her childbirth ∴ it became socially acceptable
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This is the MOST IMPORTANT factor
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REMEMBER- 4 things to state!
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Because of Queen Victoria’s use chloroform was by far the most popular anaesthetic until 1900 where people discovered it damaged the liver. ∴ Surgeons used Ether again.
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I.e. Equipment was NOT sterilised and Pasteur’s germ theory had not been discovered until 1864 so people had no idea of cleanliness.
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∴ There was a NEED factor for the development of Antiseptics as many people were dying from infection after the operation
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I THINK- this was in 1867
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Until John snows report in 1854 that proved cholera was water born
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He discovered a connection between the carbolic acid used to stop smell in sewers and to be used in operating theatres to prevent infection. BUT, don’t get confused, he later made the acid into a spray called carbolic spray!
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Involves 2 people: William Farr and Edwin Chadwick.
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It was brought about by statistics which proved that poor living conditions were linked to disease!
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This is the MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR!
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DON’T GET CONFUSED WITH EDWIN CHADWICKS report which was published in 1842!
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Involved 2 people: Ernst Bergmann and William Halsted.
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