The large majority of juveniles, however, accepted and participated in Nazism, although as with any generalisation, there were exceptions. These few organisations resisting Nazism, as the “White Rose”, the “Swing Youth” and the “Edelweißpiraten”, which opposed the Nazi regime, only formed and became politically active during the war and were in proportion extremely small. Despite the fact that the “Edelweißpiraten” killed the chief of the Gestapo in Cologne in 1944, a real danger did not radiate from them; neither did it from others. Those groupings were usually founded to celebrate a different way of living outside the conformity of the HJ and in only few cases had real political intention. The Nazi regime, however, in a way over-estimated the danger coming from oppositional groups, as show by the public hanging of the ringleaders of the “Edelweißpiraten” in Cologne 1944 or the execution of almost all members of the “White Rose” in Munich 1943. In addition the regime kept precise documentary about members and action of those groups listed above, which helps us to evaluate the danger that came from them. All resistance groups, although male dominated, also had female members.
The Nazi regime regarded rebelliousness as resistance and hence as a crime. There were groupings of juveniles in almost any bigger German city, who were `rebellious` in the sense that they were not Nazi-conform. Himmler reported on them in 1944 as follows: “Cliques are groupings of juveniles outside the Hitler Youth, who lead a separate way of life… Generally there is no fixed organisational structure; the groupings are often only loose and irregular… they often go on outings together… The cliques mostly consist of young fellows, but also some girls, too…One must distinguish between (a) cliques of an asocial-criminal character... (b) cliques of an oppositional-political character… (c) cliques with a liberal-individualistic outlook…”. In general this is an accurate description of those `cliques`, as well as the evaluation of the danger coming from them.
The Swing youth is a typical example of a “clique with a liberal-individualistic outlook”, as they were not necessarily politically against Nazism and thus were not dangerous to them. All they wanted was to be left alone and enjoy a different way of life other than prescribed by the state. As they were mainly of bourgeois origin they had the money to meet in pubs, bars or private homes and dance to Anglo-American jazz. In addition only (upper-) middle class juveniles had the education to keep up with the English and the money to buy records. Although the Nazi regime reported and finally forbade those kinds of groupings, no real political danger radiated form them, as only a few members listened to foreign radio stations, and when they did so, they were mostly interested in the music they played and not in the political message.However, in their mere existence and especially in their members, the historian Detlev Peukert sees the ultimate resistance towards Nazism, as the regime tried to abolish any kind of class and clear patterns can be seen, that the `Swing Youth` only consisted of members of one class and hence, probably without purpose, undermined Nazism.
The other type of youth resistance organisation, the “cliques with an asocial-criminal character” was the “Edelweißpiraten” or “Meuten”, which had mainly proletarian origins and other than the `Swing Youth` were politically active. They targeted HJ leaders ambushing and robbing them; therefore “Edelweißpiraten” were in addition to their sense of freedom and independence clearly oppositional to the regime and therefore politically dangerous. They usually consisted of 14 to 18 year olds, as with 14 one had reached the minimum school-leaving age, was therefore able to earn his own money and to escape from the HJ. With the war progressing almost any 18-year olds were recruited to the front. The “Edelweißpiraten” were described in a report from the Hitler Youth in 1942 as having “once again formed gangs consisting of significant numbers which organise outings, publicly provoke the Hitler Youth and undermine the work of its leaders…Leaders of the Hitler Youth have been ambushed, pestered and even shot at.” However, despite these warnings, the physical aggression of the “Edelweißpiraten” was small. They rather concentrated on slogans as “Down with Hitler”, “Metals for Murder” and “Down with Nazi Brutality”, as well as hiking trips away from the HJ and singing anti-Nazi songs. Similar groups, as the “Fahrtenstenze” (Travelling Dudes) from Essen, “Kittelsbacher Piraten” from Oberhausen and Düsseldorf and the “Navajos” from Cologne, existed throughout the whole Reich, but were not included in one whole organisation and rather were local groupings of people with same goals. In addition, the former “bündische Jugend” differed from region: Whereas the Prussian “Meuten” were more orientated on Communism, the Bavarian ones had almost only leisure purposes. In 1942, the Communist Party distributed “stickers and leaflets to pass on” to the Edelweißpiraten. Furthermore, some members joined underground organisations offering shelter and food to army deserters, prisoners of war, prisoners of concentration camps and other kinds of prisoners. However, “the Secret State Police, since the beginning of the growth of the cliques, [has] dealt with [these kinds of groupings] between 1,000 and 1,200 cases on its own authority”, which only shows how few members resistance groups in Germany had in comparison to the HJ.
Lastly, the youth groups of “oppositional-political character”, who usually have “a general antipathy towards the State”, practice this in a “rejection of the Hitler Youth and other duties to the community, indifference towards the course of war, … attacks on members of the Hitler Youth, listening to foreign radio stations and the spreading of rumours [in forma leaflets, flyers and graffiti]”, to which merely the White Rose movement counts. Hence this particular grouping was due to its determination dangerous, but not widespread. The White Rose Movement of Munich, which tried to restore the elementary ideals of freedom and individuality in contrast to what they felt the Third Reich was, following bündischen and Christian ideas, they created and distributed four different leaflets, including two additional broadsheets and graffiti on public property. The movement in Munich only consisted of six main members, one of them being a professor of philosophy, who gave the students the chance to learn about ideals of pre-Nazi Germany and Europe through literature. Although they were only able to distribute one leaflet in Munich University itself, their ideals and reputation stimulated other `cells` in cities as Berlin, Freiburg and Hamburg to similar activities. Their period of existence was between 1942 and 1943. Although they had a clear anti-Nazi propaganda, their sphere of influence and thus their dangerousness towards the regime was small.
The efforts, which the regime undertook to control youth became increasingly brutal as the war worsened, which is the most obvious evidence for the danger the state thought radiated from youth opposition. Baldur von Schirach`s decree in December 1936, which only recommended to participate in the HJ, left it open to parents to educate their children themselves. Despite this law, the HJ was not made compulsory. In March 1939, however the `duty of youth service` stated “all young people are obliged from the age 10 to their 19th birthday to serve in the Hitler Youth”. Likewise “anyone who maliciously prevents or attempts to prevent any young person from serving in the Hitler Youth will be punished by fine or imprisonment”. In March 1940 a Police Degree was issued for the Protection of Youth, excluding young people under 18 years of age from public streets and squares during darkness, excluding them from public houses, banning alcohol and smoking and excluding them from public dances. In a letter to Heydrich in 1942 Himmler suggested measures to be taken against `Swing Youth` members: “ [The Swing Youth] are to be sent to a concentration camp. There the young people should first receive a beating and then be subjected to a tough time of drill… These people must remain in the concentration camp for… 2-3 years”. From this it can be deduced that in an environment, in which the life of the individual did not count a lot, the Nazi regime viewed even the dancing to jazz-music to be punished with a `capital punishment`. In two circulars issued in 1943 and 1944 Himmler finally ordered the building-up of `youth custody camps`, in effect youth concentration camps. In addition, the Düsseldorf Gestapo caught in December 1942 28 groups containing 739 adolescents in Düsseldorf, Duisburg, Essen and Wuppertal. Their so-called ringleaders were publicly hanged in Cologne-Ehrenfeld in November 1944.
Despite this climatic increase in brutality and violence against non-conformity, the resistance movements were small and almost irrelevant in comparison to the membership-figures of the HJ and their actions were only tiny spots on a huge wall of indoctrination. They were not necessarily actively involved in campaigns against the state, but their threat and danger was rather the certainty of the regime that the HJ had failed to get all German youngsters in their organisations. However, the HJ had more than 8 million members in contrast to all youth organisations with less than a thousand members. The problem with assessing the danger of youth resistance against the swastika is, that post-war historians are searching for resistance against Nazism and for instance in the case of the White Rose over-estimated its existence. Likewise no precise documentary or minutes of their meetings were held, due to the factor threat by the regime. After the war of course many people were opposed against Nazism. Furthermore, historians raise the question, whether not participating also meant opposition. It remains the fact however, that youth resistance in the Third Reich was uncommon and politically no real danger.
Word Count: 2, 958
Maths exam-questions stated in Noakes and Pridham: “Nazism 1919-1945, vol. 2”, University of Exeter Press, Exeter, Devon (1984) p.439
Description of Speer why he and his mother joined the NSDAP in 1931, quoted in D.G. Williamson: “The Third Reich”, Longman, Harlow (1989), p.82
Plan outlining a fortnight’s camp of the HJ in the Reich Youth Leadership Handbook 1937, quoted in Noakes and Pridham: “Nazism 1919-1945, vol. 4”, University of Exeter Press, Exeter, Devon (1998), pp. 424-426, document 1189
SPD report from 1934, quoted in Noakes and Pridham: “Nazism 1919-1945 vol. 2”, University of Exeter Press, Exeter, Devon (1984), p.427
A Hitler Youth leader’s attitude to the HJ, stated in Noakes and Pridham: “Nazism 1919-1945 vol.2”, University of Exeter Press, Exeter, Devon (1984), p.427
Private Discussion with my grandfather, when I asked him why he joined the HJ, he said “There was nothing else to do than to go the Hitler Youth; any kind of leisure was being abolished, especially in a small town as Ebingen [his hometown] … and yes I have to admit I quite liked what we did there..”
Noakes and Pridham: “Nazism 1919-1945 vol.2 ”, University of Exeter Press, Exeter, Devon (1984) p.421
As the Leader of the Teacher’s League, Hans Schlemm, explained in 1938: “These young people learn nothing else, but to think as Germans and to act as Germans; these boys join our organisation at the age of ten… then, four years later, they move from the Jungvolk to the Hitler Youth and there we keep them for another four years. And then… we take them immediately into the Party, into the Labour Front, into the SA or into the SS…” quoted in Noakes and Pridham: “Nazism 1919-1945 vol. 2”, University of Exeter Press, Exeter, Devon (1984) p.417
As Howard Becker suggests in his book “German Youth: Bond or Free”, Routledge, London, (1946) rep.01, which was written in war-time and sees Nazism as a kind of religion or sect: “Today’s German soldier of twenty-one was a boy of twelve when Hitler was deified in 1933”, p.224
Private Discussion with my grandfather, towards the question in what ways he felt he was indoctrinated, he answered. “There was Nazi thinking all around: At school, at home, in the radio, everywhere… And suddenly, you often don’t realize how, you believe what they say: yes the Jew is bad and yes we must get them out…of Germany”
Speech of Goebbels, quoted in Noakes and Pridham, “Nazism 1919-1945 vol.2”, University of Exeter Press, Exeter, Devon (1984) , p.381
Noakes and Pridham, “Nazism 1919-1945 vol.2”, University of Exeter Press, Exeter, Devon (1984)p.429
A report of a Hitler Youth leader in Wiblingen (rural Wuerttemberg) to his superior dated June 1944, stated in Noakes and Pridham, “Nazism 1919-1945 vol.4”, University of Exeter Press, Exeter, Devon (1998), document 1179, p.408
The local Nazi Party leader’s reply in July 1944, stated in Noakes and Pridham, “Nazism 1919-1945 vol.4”, University of Exeter Press, Exeter, Devon (1998), document 1180, p.409
See document 1216 in Noakes and Pridham: “Nazism 1933-1945 vol. 4”, University of Exeter Press, Exeter, Devon (1998), pp.450-455
Burleigh and Wippermann: “The Racial State Germany 1933-1945”, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991, p. 238-239
Himmler describes them to have “Preference for English ideals, language, behaviour and clothing (English casual), preference for jazz and `hot` music, swing dancing, etc. Members from these cliques largely come from `the better classes` and merely want to pursue their own pleasure and sexual or other type of excess…” quoted in Burleigh and Wippermann: The Racial State Germany 1933-1945, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1991), p. 239
Burleigh and Wippermann: The Racial State Germany 1933-1945, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1991), p.220: „`Swing Youth` were young people of mainly bourgeois origin…”
Burleigh and Wippermann: The Racial State Germany 1933-1945, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1991), p.222: “A few members of the `Swing Youth` listened to foreign radio stations, which was forbidden from the outbreak of the war, but only a handful were interested in politics, or had contacts with oppositional groups.”
As he points out : „ The two central projects of Nationalist Socialist social policy- the abolition of class division through feelings of a belonging to a `racial community` … and the smashing of the perceived threat to traditional values from modernity and internationalism- seem to have run aground even before the end of the Third Reich loomed ahead with military defeat.”, stated in R. Bessel: “Life in the Third Reich”, Oxford University Press, Oxford (1989), p.40
Burleigh and Wippermann: “The Racial State Germany 1933-1945”, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991, p. 238-239
Report by the Reich Youth Leadership on `Cliquen- und Bandenbildung unter Jugentlichen``, September 1942, reprinted in Peukert, Edelweißpiraten, Penguin, Harmondsworth, (1989) pp. 220-223
A Düsseldorf Hitler Youth report to the Gestapo in April 1942, printed in Detlev Peukert: „Inside Nazi Germany: conformity, opposition and racism in everyday life“, Penguin, Harmondsworth (1989), p.160
Detlev Peukert: „Inside Nazi Germany: conformity, opposition and racism in everyday life“, Penguin, Harmondsworth (1989), p.158: „...We’re going to get rid of Hitler…and smash in the skulls of the bosses in brown”
Detlev Peukert: „Inside Nazi Germany: conformity, opposition and racism in everyday life“, Penguin, Harmondsworth, (1989), p.161
Those being Hans and Sophie Scholl, Alexander Schmorell, Chritsoph Probst, Willi Graf and Professor Kurt Huber
Noakes and Pridham, “Nazism 1919-1945 vol.2”, University of Exeter Press, Exeter, Devon (1984) p.419: “All German young people, apart from being educated at home and at school, will be educated in the Hitler Youth…”
Noakes and Pridham, “Nazism 1919-1945 vol.2” University of Exeter Press, Exeter, Devon (1984), p.420
Burleigh and Wippermann: The Racial State Germany 1933-1945, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1991), p.224-225: “one was established for male juveniles…which has been used as a concentration camp since 1933. The `youth custody camp` for females was established in the immediate vicinity of the women's concentration camp at Ravensbrück…The latter were mostly compulsorily steilised and sent to `proper` concentration camps on their eighteenth birthday.”