The Congress of Vienna
- After the defeat of Napoleon (in the Battle of Nations and Waterloo), the great powers gathered to hold a meeting--- the Congress of Vienna.
- Major decisions were made by 4 powers:
Austria: Metternich
Britain: Castlereagh
Prussia: William III
Russia: Alexander I
And
France: Talleyrand
- However, these representatives had different interests and aims.
- Their different interests and aims:
a. Austria: Metternich was a conservative. He wanted to suppress the ideas of nationalism and liberalism and restore the feudal order of Europe.
b. Britain: Castlereagh was a liberal. He wanted to restore the market in Europe. He wanted to maintain peace and stability of Europe.
c. Russia: Alexander I was ambitious. He wanted to gain Poland. He also wanted to expand power to other parts of Europe. He wanted to be the leader of a new setting Christian alliance.
d. Prussia: wanted to get Saxony; wanted to expand Prussia's power in Europe.
e. France: to ensure a lenient treaty; to avoid being isolated.
- Finally, they compromised to set up 4 guiding principles to make the arrangements:
a. Balance of Power
b. Encirclement of France
c. Legitimacy and restoration of monarch and the monarchial system (ruled by kings)
d. Compensation, reward and punishment
. Balance of power
It aimed at keeping European peace by preventing any one European state from becoming too powerful.
- Austria received Lombardy, Venetia, Dalmatia, and Galicia and Salzburg.
- Britain gained Malta, the Ionian Islands, Heligoland, Ceylon and the Cape of Good Hope.
- Prussia received two-fifths of Saxony, the Rhineland, Posen and Swedish Pomerania
- Russia gained most of Poland, Finland and Bessarabia.
2. Encirclement of France
It aimed at preventing future aggression from France by surrounding France with stronger buffer states.
* Belgium joined with Holland to form the Kingdom of the United Netherlands as a buffer state.
* 39 German states joined together to form the German Confederation.
* Switzerland's permanent neutrality and independence were guaranteed.
* The Kingdom of Sardinia was given some Italian states including Savoy, Nice and Genoa.
3. Legitimacy and restoration
It aimed at stability by restoring legitimate rulers overthrown by the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.
* The Bourbons were restored in France (Louis XVIII), Naples (Ferdinand I) and Spain (Ferdinand VII)
* The Pope got back his position in Rome.
* The former legitimate rulers in the Italian and the German states were restored.
4. Compensation, reward and punishment
It aimed at compensating those states that had lost land in the process of re-mapping Europe, at rewarding those who had helped the powers against Napoleon's supporters.
* Austria was compensated with Venetia (a part of Italy) for her loss of Belgium to Holland. She gained Lombardy and was given the presidency of the German Confederation as a reward.
* Sweden was given Norway for the loss of Finland to Russia.
* Britain was given the colonies she got during the wars with Napoleon as a reward.
* Prussia was rewarded with two-fifths of Saxony and the Rhineland.
* Russia gained most of Poland and Finland as a reward.
* The French had to accept the harsh Second Treaty of Paris for supporting Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo (1815).
* Denmark lost Norway to Sweden as punishment for helping Napoleon.
The Congress System
- After the Congress of Vienna in 1814-15, the powers wanted to cooperate with each other to maintain peace and order.
- The Congress System was created.
- The powers met to discuss the problems to avoid wars.
- The Congress System was held from 1818-1822. Among these years, four alliances (congresses) were formed.
- Finally, the Congress System failed because:
a. The powers had different, or even conflicting interests and views. They had quarreled with each other. They could not cooperate with each other.
b. The small states did not support the settlement of the great powers.
c. Two people died.
1. Napoleon died--- their common enemy
2. Castlereagh--- he wanted to maintain peace and suggested having the Congress System.
The Rise of Nation States in Europe
Introduction
- The meaning of nationalism:
* It means a desire or movement for national unity, self-rule, and/or independence by a group of people who share the same historical, linguistic, cultural, religious and ethical ties.
- Nationalism can be an integrated force or a disintegrated force:
- Independence movements (disintegrated force):
* E.g. Italian states were controlled by Austria before 1870. After nationalism spread in the Italians, they wanted to fight against the Austrians and unify themselves to get independence.
- Unification movements (integrated force):
* E.g. Originally, German states were divided and controlled by other foreign countries, such as Austria and France. After they had the idea of nationalism, they wanted to unify themselves to be an independent country.
- The causes of the national movement
. Causes created:
- After the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars, the ideas of nationalism and liberalism were spread throughout Europe.
- Although after the Congress of Vienna, the powers (e.g. Austria) wanted to suppress these two ideas, they still existed in the heart of most of the Europe countries.
- ...
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* E.g. Originally, German states were divided and controlled by other foreign countries, such as Austria and France. After they had the idea of nationalism, they wanted to unify themselves to be an independent country.
- The causes of the national movement
. Causes created:
- After the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars, the ideas of nationalism and liberalism were spread throughout Europe.
- Although after the Congress of Vienna, the powers (e.g. Austria) wanted to suppress these two ideas, they still existed in the heart of most of the Europe countries.
- People understood that they were entitled to have natural rights and to self govern. This belief encouraged the nationalist movement.
2. Causes aroused:
- Some romantic writers suggested that: people should have their own rights: they had rights and it was legal to overthrow foreign rule. The writers studied the past history of their own countries.
3. Causes favoured:
- Trade and industry were developed in most of the European countries.
- The merchants wanted to:
- I. Unify their own countries to strengthen their countries so that they could compete with other strong powers.
- II. Resume the internal powers so they could redistribute the resources.
4. Causes speeded up:
- The improvement of communication, transportation and education speeded up the spread of the ideas of nationalism and liberalism.
- All these encouraged the nationalistic movements.
- The ideas had led to revolutions in 1830, 1848 and the unification of Italy and Germany.
Background
- During the American and French Revolution, people believed people were the basis of the society.
- People respected the leader only because they were the representatives of the state.
- They had liberty and natural rights to overthrow the king if they were tyranny.
- Napoleon also aroused the sentiment of national identity.
- The own language and way of life of the people were the basis of the state.
- Nationalism had developed from Liberalism.
- In the 19th century, due to the development of communication, transportation and the growth of population, people demanded for:
* A. Asked for national unification in order to strengthen themselves.
* B. Unified themselves to compete with other countries.
* C. Asked the government to protect their interests especially the merchants (middle class).
- However, later nationalism developed to be militarism.
- Usually, people needed to use force/war to succeed unification.
- Therefore gradually they believed that problems should be solved by using force/war. That is the rise of militarism (using force/war to solve problems).
- The army became strong and powerful in most of the countries.
- All these led to the armaments race and militarism. So there were wars.
- Characteristics if the nation states in the 19th century:
- 1. People were loyal to the state. They respected the leader because they were the representatives of the state.
- 2. People participated in national affairs through election.
- 3. The state was identified with the nation.
* The boundaries or frontiers were cleared.
* People had the same language and way of life.
- 4. The government was efficient and their common concern included every aspect of life of people.
- 5. People should have equality before law.
- Examples
- 3 kinds of government in the 19th century:
* 1. Nation-states e.g. France, Britain, etc.
* 2. Small duchies e.g. German states, Italian states, etc.
* 3. Great empires e.g. Austria-Hungary, Turkish Empire, Russian Empire, etc.
Independence Movements
- Independence Movements happened in Europe and in the Balkans.
. Movement in Europe
a. France (1830)
* After the defeat of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna, the powers had restored the king in France. Since most of the French understood the ideas of liberalism and nationalism, they did not want to be ruled by the king.
* There were lots of revolutions and uprisings in France during 1830s
* Finally, the revolutionaries succeeded to overthrow the king and they chose Philippe to be the leader.
b. In the United Netherlands
* After the Congress of Vienna, Belgium combined with Holland. However Belgians did not like this arrangement because:
* I. They belong to different races.
* II. They had different languages: French and Dutch
* III. They had different religion:
o Holland--- Protestant; Belgium--- Catholic
* IV. They had different religious policies in schools:
o Belgium--- compulsory Catholic education
o Holland--- liberal religious education
* V. The had different economic policies:
o Belgium--- Protectionism; Holland--- Conservative
o After combination, Holland chose the Dutch to be the king.
* VI. The had different political policy:
o Belgium--- Liberal ideas; Holland--- Conservative
* VII. Belgians needed to help Holland to pay their debts.
* As a result, in 1830s, Belgians had a revolution in Brussels and succeeded to separate from Holland.
* Belgium overthrew the king, William I of Orange and got independent. They set up their own government and had Louis Philippe to be the leader.
* This arrangement had violated the Vienna Settlement. Originally, the powers should intervene, but in fact they had taken no action because:
* Austria and Russia were busy on their revolution in Italy, Germany and Poland.
* France welcomed the independence because she could get economic benefits after Belgium got independent.
* Britain was afraid of the power of France because Louis Philippe was French.
* Britain asked Belgium to change the king. Finally Belgium chose Prince Leopold (the uncle of Queen Victoria) to be the king.
* Significance of the independence of Belgium in 1830
* A. It violated the agreement in the Congress of Vienna and broke the Concert of Europe (the Congress System).
* In the incident of Belgium, the powers had different stand. Afterwards, the powers divided in to 2 rival camps:
* Austria and Russia--- Conservative (suppressed revolutions and maintained the monarchial system).
* Britain and France--- supported liberalism and nationalism, supported independent revolution.
* B. The spread of nationalism
* After the independence of Belgium, it set a good example (encouraged) to other subject people e.g. German states, Italian states and Poland. They were controlled by other countries. They started revolutions to fight against the foreign countries.
* In 1839, the London Treaty was signed. The powers recognized independence, and guaranteed permanent neutral status of Belgium.
* Revolution In France in 1848
* a. February Revolution
* Liberals and Socialists formed the government and prepared to draw a new constitution.
* Socialists set up national workshop in order to solve the problem of unemployment. However, it was unproductive and the middle class (bourgeoisie) and the farmers needed to share the burden of relief.
* Socialists lost the mass support.
* Finally, in the next election, liberals won the election and became the majority in the new Constituent Assembly and the Second Republic was set up.
* The new Republic decided to:
. Abolish the workshop
2. Abolish the monarchial system
3. Set up a new legislative assembly
4. Encourage universal suffrage
* b. June Revolution
* After the setting up of the New Republic, Socialists felt discontent and started revolution in June 1848.
* They asked to set up Commune (basic unit of communism) and carried out the Socialist revolution.
* Finally, although the revolution was suppressed, many people have died and were exiled.
* Effect:
* In France, after the June Revolution, people were afraid of radicalism.
* The French chose the conservative to be the members of the Legislative Assembly.
* They chose Louis Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, a conservative) to be the president.
* These ideas of revolution, however, spread to other European countries. Lots of revolutions stared in Europe (although all of them failed). We call 1848 "The Year of Revolution".
* Significance of 1848 Revolution
* 1. Basically, most of the revolutions was led by intellectuals (not by radicals) and supported by the workers---June Revolution.
* 2. Due to the growth of industrialization, people became more pragmatic (practical).
* The leaders they supported were more pragmatic e.g. Bismarck and Cavour. They concentrated on unifying their countries.
* Movements in the Balkans
* The independence movements in the Balkans, in addition to the intervention of European countries were called the Eastern Question.
* The countries in the Balkans were controlled by the Turkish Empire.
* Eastern Question was caused by:
* 1. In the 19th century, the power of the Turkish Empire declined. The Balkan states wanted to fight against Turkish Empire to get independent because they were influenced by the ideas of nationalism and liberalism.
* 2. The situation/ problem was complicated by the ambition of the European countries e.g. Austria, Russia, Britain, France
* All these countries wanted to get interests in the Balkans. Their intervention had complicated the problem.
* The ambition of the European countries
* Russia:
* Russia was ambitious and she tried to expand her power to other areas of Europe e.g. the Strait of Dardanelles, Bosphorous, the Mediterranean Sea, Danube and the Black Sea, in order to also expand her trade.
* Russia and the Balkan people belonged to the same race: Slavs. Therefore Russia wanted to set up a Slavic Union in Balkan.
* Therefore Russia wanted to see the collapse of the Turkish Empire.
* If the Turkish Empire collapsed, then her power could expand to Central Europe and the Balkan area and set up a Slavic Union.
* Britain:
* Britain wanted to uphold the Turkish Empire.
* She wanted to use Turkey to be the buffer state to contain Russia.
* She wanted to have a peaceful environment to continue her trading business.
* Since Britain was a democratic country, upholding the Turkish Empire and helping her to suppress the revolutions in the Balkans was quite unreasonable. Finally, Britain gave up to help the Turkish Empire.
* Later, Britain recognized the independence of the Balkan states.
* Austria:
* Austria also wanted to uphold the Turkish Empire but she did not want to set up a democratic government in the Balkans.
* Some of the people in Austria were Slavs. If a Slavic Union was set up, then it might also stimulate the uprising of Slavs in Austria.
* In order to avoid revolution in Austria, Austria wanted to keep a weak Turkish Empire.
* France:
* France wanted to get benefits especially the territorial advantages.
* She wanted to see the collapse of Turkish Empire, so that she could expand to North Africa and Asia Minor.
Independence of Greece
- The Greeks were influenced by the ideas of nationalism and liberalism.
- They were encouraged by the success of French Revolution and Russia (but Russia didn't take any military actions).
- Finally they decided to fight against Turkey.
- In 1821, they started a revolution in Moldavia.
- However, Russia and other countries (Austria and Prussia) which signed the Troppau Protocol did not intervene. Greece failed to defeat Turkey.
- Later, Greeks started to revolt in Morea again.
- Finally, Greeks succeeded to defeat Turkey.
- However, since Greeks, after winning the war, slaughtered the Turkish. The powers decided to intervene.
- The powers held the Congress of Verona (1821) to discuss the problem of Greece.
- Russia wanted to help Greece, but Austria and Britain opposed the problem of Greece. They were afraid of the expansion of Russia. In 1825, the problem was discussed again.
- In 1825, Turkey asked Egypt to help and Russia also started to help Greece.
- Up to this point, other great powers worried about the expansion of Russia in the Balkans. Britain called the Conference of London in 1827.
- In the Congress, Britain (Canning), France and Russia cooperated and made alliance to fight against Turkey in order to help Greece to become self-governed (master country and tribute state--- yearly tribute only).
- But Turkey refused. The powers formed a joint naval force to fight against Turkey.
- In the Battle of Navarano, the Turkish-Egyptian fleet was defeated.
- Originally, the event was settled.
- However, in 1828, Russia declared war on Turkey in order to get benefits exclusively, therefore the First Russo-Turkish War started in 1828-29.
- Russia occupied Moldavia, Wallachia and the Adrianople. Finally the Treaty of Adrianople was signed.
- The treaty stated that Greece gets independent from Turkey but she still needs to give yearly tribute.
- Moreover, Serbia and some other Balkan states were given autonomy.
- Turkey also lost some territory.
- Britain called the Treaty of London in 1832 again.
- In face of the Treaty of Adrianople, Britain called meeting in London again and signed the Treaty of London in 1832.
- In the Conference, Britain and France were afraid that Russia would use the tribute payment as an excuse to intervene Greece; therefore they wanted to put Greece under their guarantee.
- In the Treaty of London in 1832, Greece gained independence and Prince Otto of Bavaria became the king of Greece.
- Both Austria and Turkey accepted the treaty.
- Significance of the independence of Greece
* 1. It set a good example for other Balkan states to fight for independence.
* 2. Only southern part of Greece gained independence, so they continued to help Greeks in other countries to fight for independence.
- Independence of Rumania
* Status of Rumania
* Originally, there was no united Rumania. There were 2 Rumanian principalities: Wallachia and Moldavia.
* In 1812, Russia defeated Turkey and get Bessarabia. In the Congress of Vienna (1815-16), Bessarabia was given to Russia. (This was recognized by other countries.)
* In 1829, after Russo-Turkish War, Turkey was defeated again, Wallachia and Moldavia were given to Russia.
* Until the Crimean War in 1854-56, the Rumanian principalities were controlled by Russia. (This was not recognized by other countries.)
* The Crimean War in 1854-56
* In 1854, there was a quarrel between Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church.
* Russia supported EOC and France (Napoleon III) supported RCC.
* It changed a religious conflict to a political problem.
* Other countries were afraid that Russia would use this to expand her power to the Balkans, so they also joined in the fighting.
* Therefore the situation was complicated.
* Finally, Britain, France, Piedmont (an Italian state) and Turkey fought against Russia.
* Russia was alone to fight the European countries. Finally, Russia was defeated.
* Peace Conference after the Crimean War
* 1. A Black Sea Clause was set up: asked Russia to give up fortification in the Black Sea. Russia had exclusive rights to use the Black Sea before. Now she had to use all countries to use the Black Sea.
* 2. Russia had to give up Bessarabia.
* 3. Russia had to let Wallachia and Moldavia to unite to form Rumania--- independent state.
* At the beginning, Britain (wanted to uphold Turkey) and Austria (was afraid that the Rumanians in Austria might start revolutions) opposed, but finally took no action to stop the independence and Rumania chose Couza to be the king of Rumania.
* Significance: No one gained and no one lost anything.
- Independence of Serbia and Bulgaria
* Both Serbia and Bulgaria were controlled by the Turks for many years.
* But both wanted to fight against Turks and get independence.
* After the Treaty of Adrianople, Serbia was under Russian control.
* They finally gained independence after the Second Russo-Turkish War (1877-78).
* The Second Russo-Turkish War in 1877-78
* In 1875, several Balkan states, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Macedonia, Serbia, and Bulgaria started war with Turkey and wanted to get independence.
* But finally, the revolution was suppressed by Turkey and the Turks. They started to kill the people in the Balkan states especially in Bulgaria.
* Britain took no action because she still wanted to uphold Turkey.
* But Russia used this chance to intervene. The Second Russo-Turkish war started in 1877.
* Finally, Turkey was defeated by Russia in 1878 and the Treaty of San Stefano was signed.
* The Treaty of San Stefano:
* 1. Serbia, Montenegro and Rumania got independence. The independence was recognized by Turkey.
* 2. Most controversial: a big Bulgaria was set up.
* The arrangement of the Treaty of San Stefano made Britain and Austria feel discontent.
* Britain still wanted to uphold Turkey and was afraid that Russia would use the Big Bulgaria to expand her power in Balkan.
* Austria also felt uneasy because her expansion to the Balkans might be blocked by the Big Bulgaria and Serbia.
* Both Britain and Austria wanted to revise the treaty and threatened to wage war.
* In order to deal with the problem of Big Bulgaria, German's Chancellor Bismarck (Germany was unified in 1871) acted as the 'honest broker' (he acted as a mediator because he had no interest in the Balkans) to arrange a meeting --- the Congress of Berlin in 1878.
* The arrangement in the Congress of Berlin (1878)
* 1: The Big Bulgaria was trisected into:
* Bulgaria, Macedonia and Eastern Rumelia
* Bulgaria gained independence.
* Macedonia was given to Turkey.
* Eastern Rumelia became an autonomous state (they could determine their own internal affairs) under Turkish control.
* 2: Britain got lands in the island of Cyprus
* Austria administered (controlled but not completely controlled) Bosnia and Herzegovina.
* Russia was compensated for Bessarabia and places in Caucasus.
* Serbia, Montenegro and Rumania gained independence.
* Turkey promised to carry out reforms (giving religious freedom to the Balkan states)
* The Congress of Berlin influenced the relationship between Russia, Britain, Austria and Germany.
- Complete independence of Bulgaria
* Relationship with Russia
* Bulgaria got independence after the Congress of Berlin in 1878, Russia still tried her best to intervene Bulgaria. Lots of conflicts aroused.
* In 1853, Bulgaria succeeded to ask Russian ministers in Bulgaria to resign.
* Relationship with Eastern Rumelia
* Eastern Rumelia became an autonomous state, but she was still controlled by Turkey.
* Eastern Rumelia started war to fight against Turkey and wanted to unite with Bulgaria.
* Both Russia (took no action) and Serbia (sent army but failed) opposed.
* Britain and Austria were pleased to see a strong Bulgaria to contain the expansion of Russia.
* In 1886, Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg became the Prince of Bulgaria and carried out the policy of independence. In 1908, the powers recognized the independence of Bulgaria (union with Eastern Rumelia) and he became king.
* Development of Bulgaria after independence
* After the Balkan Wars, Bulgaria got some lands and increased in size.
* Since Bulgaria had conflicts with Serbia (backed up by Russia), she began to make friends with Germany and Austria-Hungary.
* Finally, Bulgaria joined the Central Powers and was defeated in WWI.
