The Rise of Hitler Revision notes.
The Rise of HitlerModern European and World HistoryThis article is divided into the following sections: The origins of the Nazi Party The lean years 1924-1929 The Great Depression and Nazi electoral success 1929-1932 Hitler comes to power 1933 Hitler’s consolidation of power 1933-1934 THE ORIGINS OF THE NAZI PARTY After the war Hitler was employed by the army as a ‘V’ man to spy on political parties in Munich to find out if they were dangerous. One small party, the German Workers’ Party, appealed to him and he joined it in 1919. It was at this time he discovered his great gift for public speaking. In February 1920 the party changed its name to the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei – NSDAP, NAZI for short) and set out its 25-point programme. Here are some of the points: 1. We demand the union of all Germans to form a greater Germany…2. We demand the abolition of the Peace Treaties of Versailles and Saint Germain.3. We demand land and territory for the nourishment of our people…4. None but those of German blood… may be members of the German nation. No Jew, therefore, may be a member of the German nation. Articles 10 and 21 referred to the duty of citizens and state to work for and ensure physical and mental fitness: 11. We demand the abolition of incomes unearned by work.14. We demand profit-sharing in the big industries.15. We demand a generous development of provision for old age.16. We demand the creation and support of a healthy middle class.25. We demand the creation of a strong central government in Germany. Quite clearly many of these points were the result of Hitler’s influence (though later he would quietly drop many of the ‘socialistic’ ideas). What is also striking is that the party was attempting to appeal to a broad spectrum of the electorate, something that most Weimar parties did not do. Following a power struggle in 1921, Hitler became the leader of the party with unlimited powers and in August he formed the SA (Sturm Abteilung –stormtroopers) a paramilitary group designed to keep order and (literally) fight the Communists. By 1922 he was known as the “Führer”(leader).The Munich Putsch Having established his authority in the party (and no doubt influenced by Mussolini’s successful March on Rome in October 1922) Hitler now decided to challenge the Weimar Republic by mounting a Putsch in Bavaria. On 8 November 1923, Hitler and the SA burst into a beer hall where the state government was holding a public meeting, and declared a provisional government. The following morning, Hitler and Ludendorff marched through Munich at the head of 3,000 men, only to be halted by police fire which left 16 Nazis dead and brought the Putsch to a humiliating end. Mein Kampf Hitler was arrested and tried for high treason in February/March 1924. By the end of the trial Hitler had established himself as a national figure but he was nevertheless found guilty. However, he was only sentenced to five years in Landsberg prison because of the right-wing sympathies of the judiciary – in fact he only served nine months. During that time he dictated his book, Mein Kampf (My Struggle), a rambling, long ‘spoken book’ in which he expressed his ideas on history, politics, race and the future of Germany. Here are some of the main
ideas: ∙ The Fuehrer principleGermany must be ruled by a single, strong leader who has great power – a ‘Fuehrer’.Lebensraum(living space)Germans need more land to live and work in. They will get this extra land by taking over countries east of Germany – Poland and Russia, for example. They will use force to get this land if the eastern countries do not give it up.RaceHuman beings are divided into races. Some races are better than others. The best races are ‘pure’ ones which have not interbred with others. The Germans, who belong to the ‘Aryan’ race must keep themselves pure ...
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ideas: ∙ The Fuehrer principleGermany must be ruled by a single, strong leader who has great power – a ‘Fuehrer’.Lebensraum(living space)Germans need more land to live and work in. They will get this extra land by taking over countries east of Germany – Poland and Russia, for example. They will use force to get this land if the eastern countries do not give it up.RaceHuman beings are divided into races. Some races are better than others. The best races are ‘pure’ ones which have not interbred with others. The Germans, who belong to the ‘Aryan’ race must keep themselves pure in order to become the ‘master race’.Anti-semitismJews, or Semites as Hitler called them, are the biggest threat to the purity of the Germans. They are also involved in a great conspiracy to take control of the world. They helped to bring about Germany’s defeat in the Great War. Jews must therefore be destroyed.CommunismCommunism, the political system of Russia, is dangerous, so it too must be destroyed.The Treaty of VersaillesThe peace treaty which Germany signed in 1919 is unfair. It must be cancelled and the land which it took away from Germany must be returned. France must be destroyed. THE LEAN YEARS 1924-1929 On his release in December 1924, Hitler had the task of re-establishing his authority. The ban on the Nazi Party was lifted in January 1925 and in February the party was officially re-founded. At the re-founding, Hitler told his followers: Instead of working to achieve power by an armed putsch, we shall have to hold our noses and enter the Reichstag… In other words, he had concluded that the road to power lay through the legal subversion of the Weimar Constitution, the building of a mass movement and the combination of parliamentary strength with extra(outside)–parliamentary violence and intimidation. However, it is important to remember just how insignificant Hitler and the Nazis were during this period. Hitler himself was banned from public speaking from 1925 to 1927 and the growth in prosperity meant that many people turned away from extremist parties to more moderate ones. Indeed in 1928 the Nazis only polled 2.6 per cent of the vote and had 12 seats in the Reichstag – down from the peak of 6.6 per cent and 32 seats in May 1924. Clearly the attempt to become a mass movement and capture power by the ballot box was not working. It would take another major economic crisis to make the Nazis electable. However, these years in the wilderness saw some significant organizational developments. In 1925, Hitler set up a second military group, the SS (Schutzstaffeln or Protection squads). He also set up Party branches in all parts of the country, and these in turn set up special organizations: the Hitler Youth, the German Girls’ League, the Nazi Students’ League, the Nazi Teachers’ League, and many more. Indeed by the end of 1928, the Nazi Party had 108,717 members - but it would take the Great Depression to give it mass appeal. THE GREAT DEPRESSIONAND NAZI ELECTORAL SUCCESS1929-1932 In the article on The Weimar Republic we have already indicated that the parliamentary democracy was not very popular and that German economic recovery had been superficial. With the onset of the Great Depression, the economy collapsed, businesses went bankrupt, unemployment soared (to 6 million by 1933), the government suspended the democracy and the people turned to the more extremist parties. Many working class and unemployed turned to the Communists, and the middle classes fearing another 1923 or a Communist Revolution, turned to the Nazis. The results were quite dramatic: in 1930 the Nazis became the second largest party in the Reichstag, their proportion of the vote having increased sevenfold: SEPTEMBER 1930 PARTYSEATS%Social Democrats143 (153)24.5 (29.8)The Nazi Party 107 (12) 18.3 (2.6)The Centre Party 87 (78) 14.8 (15.1)The Communist Party 77 (54) 14.3 (10.6) 1928 figures in brackets. The Centre includes the Bavarian Peoples’ Party This was a remarkable achievement (Hitler had only expected about 50 seats) but who turned to the Nazis and why? Reasons for Nazi Success Recent research into Nazi voting patterns suggests that after 1928 the party performed best in predominantly Protestant and rural districts of Northern Germany. However, despite the disproportionate number of Protestant, rural and middle-class supporters, the Nazis could justifiably claim to represent a wider range of economic and social groups than any other party – appealing to the young in general and even some working class voters and Catholics. Many people voted Nazi simply because they agreed with their ideas. If you look back to the 25 point programme, it is clear that the party had something for everyone – young and old, working class, middle class, employed, unemployed. And for anyone wondering who was to blame for Germany’s problems the Nazis pointed to the ‘November criminals’ and to Jews as the culprits. To Nationalists who wished to restore German pride Hitler’s commitment to overthrow the hated treaty of Versailles struck a chord. Indeed Hitler was able to mobilise disaffection much more successfully then the traditional parties because they had been too closely associated with the failing Weimar Republic. In addition we should not underestimate the importance of the methods the Nazi Party employed – its parades, its symbols, the uniforms and banners, the bands, the marching columns of SA, the rallies, Hitler’s rhetoric – all these captured the imagination of the masses. There can be little doubt that under the direction of Dr. Josef Goebbels (appointed Head of Party Propaganda in April 1930) Nazi propaganda had an impact, exploiting peoples’ grievances and presenting them with an optimistic alternative, based upon a sense of community under a single charismatic leader. Goebbels was very effective – he made records and films of Hitler’s speeches; he put up posters and flags everywhere; he exploited newsreels and the radio and he held mass rallies which were filmed. In 1932, he hit upon the idea of using a plane to allow Hitler to make speeches all over the country – ‘Hitler over Germany’ was a very effective campaign. Hitler stood in the election for the presidency in 1932 and came a very creditable second, capturing most of the right-wing vote (to Hindenburg’s annoyance). Hindenburg (no party) 19,359,000 Hitler (Nazi) 13,418,000 Thalman (Communist) 3,706,655 It wasn’t just propaganda, and rallies and speeches that won votes for Hitler. The SA played an important part too – by beating up Communists and making it impossible for them to campaign properly. This violence against bolshevism actually reassured the middle classes who lived in fear of a communist revolution. However, as both the Presidential election and the Reichstag elections showed (the KPD never got more than 17% of the vote) the communist threat was clearly exaggerated.The election of July 1932 proved to be a great victory for the Nazis: PARTYSEATS% OF VOTEThe Nazi Party23037.3Social Democrats 133 21.6The Centre Party 95 15.9The Communist Party 89 14.3 n.b. A majority of the German people voted for anti-democratic parties in this election. HITLER COMES TO POWER 1933 The Nazi Party was by now the biggest party in the Reichstag and by rights Hitler should have become Chancellor. However, President Hindenburg did not like Hitler and refused to give him the post. He asked the present Chancellor, Franz von Papen, to stay in office and enabled him to rule by use of the presidential emergency decree. Indeed government had been conducted in this fashion since Chancellor Brüning in 1930. No chancellor had been able to win over the Reichstag for the unpopular measures necessary to tackle the economic crisis. Indeed in some respects the Nazis owed their popularity to the unpopularity of Brüning’s deflationary policies between 1930 and 1932. Although Brüning intended to demonstrate Germany’s inability to pay reparations, he only succeeded in worsening the economic situation and alienating the electorate. He was dismissed by Hindenburg and replaced by Papen who also failed to secure the support of the Reichstag. He called another election in November 1932: PARTYSEATS% VOTEThe Nazi Party19633.1Social Democrats 121 20.4The Communist Party 100 16.9The Centre Party 70 15 Although the Nazi vote slipped back at this election, the growth of the Communist vote alarmed many including the Centre politicians who now agreed Hitler must be in the next government. Hitler held out for the Chancellorship or nothing, but Papen and Hindenburg would not agree. However increasing numbers of important interest groups – industrialists, the army, even Hindenburg’s own family circle – were arguing that only by appointing Hitler could the Reichstag be controlled and the Communist menace stopped. Papen resigned in December and was replaced by General Kurt von Schleicher. He tried to break the political stalemate by splitting the Nazis (i.e. by bringing some – but not Hitler – into government) and negotiating with the left. He failed on both counts. By January, Papen was resolved to the idea of Hitler as Chancellor but still the aging President was opposed. Schleicher resigned on January 28th and now Papen and Hindenburg’s son Oskar tried to persuade the President that Hitler could be controlled. He would be a small part of a coalition – he would be ‘framed in’ by respectable nationalists; within two months, he would be ‘squeezed…into a corner until he squeaks’. Meanwhile democracy would be restored. Hindenburg was not convinced but by this time he had run out of options and he finally agreed to Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor. On 30th January 1933, Hitler was only one of three Nazis in a cabinet of twelve, but he was soon able to consolidate his power. HITLER’S CONSOLIDATION OF POWER 1933-1934 The Reichstag Fire Hitler quickly persuaded Papen and Hindenburg that there should be another election. Then on the night of 27th February 1933 the Reichstag went up in flames. This was blamed on the communist, Marianus van der Lubbe, who was found inside the building with matches. Whether or not the Nazis were responsible has never been proven but they were certainly the beneficiaries. Hitler went to Hindenburg and obtained a ‘Decree of the Reich President for the Protection of People and State’ (28 February). This suspended civil rights and provided for imprisonment without trial. It formed the basis for the suppression of the Communist Party (4,000 Communists were arrested) and the intimidation of other political opponents. The March 1933 election results were as follows: PARTYSEATS%The Nazi Party288 43.9Social Democrats 120 18.2The Communist Party 81 12.2The Centre Party 73 14.1Others 85 11.6 Still Hitler did not have a majority; however, with the support of the Nationalists (52 seats) and the Centre Party (and in the absence of the Communists) he was able to muster a two-thirds majority in the Reichstag to pass the Enabling Law (23rd March). This gave him full powers for four years to pass laws without Reichstag consent and was the first step on the road to dictatorship. He quickly moved to consolidate his authority. The next month he passed the Law for the Restoration of a Professional Civil Service to weed out opposition (and Jews) in the bureaucracy and on the same day (April 7th) he put Nazi officials in charge of the local governments that ran Germany’s provinces. On May 2nd he closed down trade unions, took away their funds and put their leaders in prison. Then on 14th July he passed the Law against the Formation of New Parties which in effect turned Germany into a one-party state. Hitler officially called an end to the ‘revolution’ in July 1933, but the SA continued to act in an unrestrained way. Ernst Röhm, their leader, wanted his brown shirts to be merged with the army and himself made a general. The army disapproved of the SA and since it was the one organization that could have removed Hitler, he came up with a typically ruthless solution. On 30th June 1934 Röhm and most of the SA leaders were murdered by the SS in what became known as the Night of the Long Knives. The army was impressed by Hitler’s decisive handling of this problem and when, one month later, President Hindenburg died, the Reichswehr (army) agreed that Hitler should become President and Chancellor, and took an oath of allegiance to him. On 2nd August 1934 Hitler became ‘Fuehrer and Reich Chancellor’ and the men of the army swore the following oath: I will render unconditionalObedience to the fuehrer of the German Reich and people, Adolf Hitler, the supremecommander of the armedforces, and will be ready asa brave soldier to stakemy life at any time for this oath. Hitler had easily outmanoeuvred the Weimar politicians who had fatally underestimated him. In the space of eighteen months he had abolished the democracy, made himself dictator and gained a measure of control over the army. The path was now clear for him to carry out those aims he had expressed just ten years before in his book, Mein Kampf.