However, nationalism wasn’t only found in Austria-Hungary. The Great Powers also wanted dominance and prestige in Europe, which led to rivalries. Nationalism in Germany was a very important cause because it led to other important causes, which dealt with their aggression on Europe. From the period of 1871 to 1890, Germany wanted to preserve their domination over Europe by forming peaceful alliances with other powers. However, when Kaiser Wilhelm II came to power, he opted for more aggressive measures. He wanted to make Germany dominant in world politics in a policy called Weltpolitik. Besides, German civilians and military leaders wanted to expand their territory that would them allow them to compete successfully with Britain and the United States. In addition, there was also nationalism in Russia, France and Britain. Russia’s main ambition was for territory, she wanted to expand eastwards and westwards. However, her territorial ambitions clashed with the ones of Britain and Austria-Hungary. Russian politicians wanted to acquire warm water ports because the ones she had, were ice mostly all the year. French nationalism included the ambition to recover the provinces of Alsace-Lorraine, which were lost to Germany during the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. She also wanted to recover her national prestige by acquiring overseas colonies such as Morocco. Britain, on the other hand, had a very powerful position mainly because of her location and her policy of isolationism. She was the most industrially advanced country in Europe with the largest navy and colonies in the world. Most of the time her interests clashed with those of France, for example both wanted Burma, India, Thailand and Egypt and Russia by who she felt threatened and by her interests on the Mediterranean Sea.
In addition to the dominance and the prestige each country wanted to have over the world, they wanted to regain the pride and dignity that had been lost to countries in certain events. Two important examples are Russia and Germany. Russia was deeply humiliated by Austria-Hungary in the Bosnian affair. Aehrenthal tricked Russia by making an agreement of mutual help, which was then broken. Russia was promised support on her claims on the Straits if she supported Austria-Hungary in the annexation. The trick by Aehrenthal brought important consequences such as negotiations between Greece and Montenegro with Turkey and Serbia which involved military plans and the opposition to Austria-Hungary by Russia, which brought it to support Serbia. On the other hand, Germany experienced a similar situation where she also felt humiliated. This was in the Agadir crisis when she sent her gunboat ‘Panther’ to the port of Agadir in South Morocco. Germany wanted the whole of the French Congo as a compensation of giving up all the claims on Morocco, but the British intervened and this caused Germans to feel powerless as they felt they weren’t allowed to handle their own affairs. In Germany, von Moltk, emphasized how important it was to countries, not to be humiliated, ‘If we once again crawl out of this affair with our tail between out legs, if we cannot pull ourselves together and take an energetic line which we are ready to back up with the sword, I despair of the future of the German Empire and shall quit.’ This emphasises the idea of the German politicians desire for world power and their willingness to use violence to reach their objectives.
Germany’s foreign policy during the periods of 1890 to 1914, acted as a catalyst. Most of Germany responsibility lies on the Kaiser and on the military leaders. When Wilhelm II came to power he changed Germany in such a way that she became more aggressive and she was prepared to use violence to achieve her ambitions. Bismark, the German Chancellor of that time, said that the new impulsive Kaiser was “like a balloon. If you don’t hold fast to the string, you’ll never know where he’ll be off to.” The power in Germany rested on the Kaiser and on the military establishment, which produced domestic instability such as the unrest among the working class, the rise of socialism and dislike of most German parties towards the government. It is for this reason, that the idea of war would make the Kaiser popular because he would have the chance to recreate the glory days in 1871. Furthermore, Germany started to develop her navy and therefore becomes a threat to Britain. There are two important laws passed in Germany, which enable the construction of a huge navy, they are the First Navy Law approved by the Reichstag on the 28th March 1898 and the Second Navy Law, approved by the Reichstag on the 12th June 1900. Germany constructs modern and with high technology ships such as dreadnoughts, submarines and cruisers. This Naval expansion, threatened Britain and it was then when the Naval race started. And although Germany adopted aggressive policies, it never left her main aim which as F. Fischer argues, was the ‘…aggressive insistence on Germany’s claims the next, but never wavered in it’s ultimate objective, the expansion of Germany’s power.’
The arms race was an important factor, which lead to the war because it made country’s security be threatened by all the modern weapons but it also threatened the country pride, as was the case of Britain. There were two major armament developments, weapons for land and sea. In land, modern machines were created and many of them were innovated. Tanks, machine guns, rifles such as the Howitzer were improved and these advances in technology made countries be in a constant war for creating better weapons. However the major race was the naval race between Germany and Britain. Germany increased enormously her navy with both Navy Laws while Britain was constructing her first Dreadnoughts. Apart from dreadnoughts, battle cruisers, torpedoes and submarines were also built. This naval race had serious consequences mainly because of the increasing rivalry between both countries and the suspicion between them, which also brought international tension. Furthermore, from 1890 onwards, there had been economic conflicts between Germany and Britain due to the rapid industrial development of Germany, which included steel, oil and coal. Therefore, German industry started to compete with British manufactures around the world and so German merchant ships threatened Britain’s trade. This increasing rivalry and tensions between the Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance, made countries prepared for a war by 1914.
Mobilization or ‘war by timetable’ as A.J.P Taylor called it, was a short-term factor, which only provoked war after the Austrians, had declared war on Serbia on the 28th July 1914. The next events that came were chains of events due to the mobilization of countries. The military leaders of each country had done several plans involving mobilization. Germany, on the one hand, had developed a strategic plan, which consisted mainly in avoiding a two front-war by capturing first Paris and then returning to fight Russia. This was called ‘the Shlieffen Plan’. The French, on the other hand, had ‘Plan Seventeen’. The aim of this plan was to capture the provinces of Alsace-Lorraine, cross the River Rhine and then head to Berlin. The British also made a plan because they had agreed with the French to help them if there was a war with Germany. The British formed an Expeditionary Force whose aim was to help French soldiers. However, people had a wrong thought of the mobilization plans and they thought that the side that mobilised quicker and struck first, would win. Besides, they had the wrong idea of returning ‘home by Christmas’.
During this time, countries in Europe were also in ‘the Scramble for Africa’, which was that each European Power wanted to have and expand their colonies in Africa so that they could trade with them and therefore increase their economy. In addition, prestige could be won nationally and internationally with victory and expansion overseas. However, the Scramble for Africa brought many problems to Europe mainly because countries would not agree on their colonies limits or they wanted to expand them. Germany had various problems with the colonies because she had very few and she thought that Britain and France were denying her of having ‘a place in the Sun’. Germany was frustrated with this and she looked for ways to get what she wanted, and these ways involved violence.
Germany also carried much of the responsibility for the war because it supported Austria-Hungary’s actions, which in July 1914, were very important because it was in July were most of tragic events, led to a chain of events which led to war. Germany regarded Austria-Hungary as her most important ally before Italy and therefore, she offered unlimited support in whatever actions Austria chose to take. This was proved with the ‘blank cheque’ the Kaiser send to Austria-Hungary when the ultimatum to Serbia was being prepared. The Kaiser said to Franz Josef that he could ‘rest assured that His Majesty will faithfully stand-by Austria-Hungary, as is required by the obligations of his alliance and of his ancient friendship.’ This made Austria more confident and therefore, she declared war on Serbia, knowing that Germany would support her and as the historian S. Williamson said: ‘the blank cheque gave Vienna the assurances needed to opt for decisive action against Serbia.’
In some events like the ‘blank cheque’ and the declaration of war from Austria to Serbia, the influence and actions of personalities made war accelerate. The Kaiser was a very important person here because he was willing to take Germany to a war and during this planning he lost control, in other words he started to lose power and this power went to the military leaders which miscalculated certain events like the ‘blank cheque’. Further more, German leaders wanted to challenge Britain and this lead to the naval race. Russia also influenced the war especially with the annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and her support on Serbia.
As the last consequence, people in Europe were unaware of the technological improvements on weapons and most of them thought that it was going to be like the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. Furthermore, everyone thought that it was going to be a short war and that ‘it would end before Christmas.’ The only one who predicted the long conflict was the British Secretary for War, Lord Kitchener who said ‘we must be prepared to put armies of millions in the field and maintain them for several years.’ In addition, politicians and the majority of the population were willing to go to war, mainly because they needed to release all the tensions that had been building in Europe. However, war could have been stopped, but as LCF Turner argues ‘it was a tragedy of miscalculation’ which led to those consequences.
In conclusion, the Alliance system wasn’t totally responsible for the outbreak of the war. There were other factors, which influenced and acted as a catalyst to the war. Nationalism was an important factor because it had been growing and expanding to the European countries and it made people want to feel proud about their countries. Furthermore, with nationalism nations became jealous of the achievements of others, and all of them felt a need for defence. They thought that the best way of defence was being offensive, and they had the false hypothesis that the one who would mobilize first would win the war. Nationalism also makes countries act depending on their self-interests and this was the case of France when Germany demanded her to stay neutral, Premier René Vivani replied that ‘France would act in accordance with its interests.’ Furthermore, the role of Germany was very important, because it lead to the naval race, the attack on Serbia because Germany had given all her support to Austria and the willingness of the Kaiser to use violence to achieve Germany’s ambitions. Therefore, we could also consider the view of F. Fischer who said that ‘Germany was responsible for the war because of its aggressive pursuit of its weltpolitik’. However we cannot forget that there were minor causes such as the ignorance of people towards how the war was going to be. Finally, yes, the Alliance System was responsible for the war to the extent that it created major rivalries between the European Powers and made war to be a chain of events due to the alliances and agreements of defence that each of the allies had made with each other.
Bibliography
- Tucker Spencer, The Great War 1914-18, 1998 Arrowhead Books Limited, UK, Library Book, p. 1 to 16.
- Wolfson Robert, Years of Change, 1978 Hodder & Stoughton, London, class textbook p. 125 – 151
- Traynor John, Europe 1890 – 1990, 1992 Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd, London, class textbook . 18 - 40
