right to custody of her children if they were under 16, although there
was not any guarantee that the courts would be in favour of the
mother.[8] In 1884, the abolition of the act that meant that any
married women who refused to have sex with her husband was sent to
prison, showed the changing attitudes towards women.[9] Although the
attitudes toward women were changing, the fact that the law on
emancipation for women, had not changed, emphasises that there was
still much work to be done. [10] Women had, however gained greater
status and had begun to prove to be worthy of sound political argument
as they toured the country speaking to all who would listen in village
halls or on soap boxes on the streets. They began to draw more men to
listen and although they were subject to heckling, they gained more
respect and started to change men's views about women. Opinions were
slowly changing - but they were changing and bringing women nearer to
winning their battle for emancipation.
Pre 1918 the electoral roll was extremely different, even without
women. It was not until 1867 that men over 21 were allowed to vote:
and this enfranchisement was only allowed to those who paid rents,
which varied according to whether they lived in boroughs or in the
counties, annually in rent.[11] Men had struggled for the vote since
the late eighteenth century. Men felt that the wealthy landowners
suppressed them, and even when men were given the vote, the landowners
and industrialists (those to whom they owed their employment) bribed
and indoctrinated them, until the secret ballot was introduced in
1872. [12] When men achieved emancipation, many women were outraged
that they were excluded[13]. The reason given by parliament was that
there had already been a dramatic increase in the electorate, and that
a bigger increase would cause difficulties.[14] According to accounts
by Suffragettes the reason was that politicians felt that women were
unworthy of the vote, as their lack of intellect made them incapable
of political decision and would vote Conservative if they were given
the vote[15].
The women's Suffrage movement comprised two strands, the moderate
strand developed from the ideals of Millicent Garrett Fawcett and the
better known "suffragettes" formed at the beginning of the twentieth
century by Emmeline Pankhurst and her small band of followers.[16]
When the women's Social and Political Union (WSPU), entered the
political scene, they brought with them a more militant and outrageous
era in the fight for 'Votes for Women'.[17]
In their early days, both movements tended to be middle class but by
the turn of the century thousands of working class women joined their
ranks. Many of the improvements in their working conditions had been
gained through the work of the feminist movement and gradually these
women came to embrace the ideals of their activist sisters. Suffrage
was less important to these women but the crusade for sexual equality
must have gained credibility and respect from a section of the
population, both men and women.
On the other hand, however, the move towards militancy in the early
years of the twentieth century generated much hostility amongst people
who had sympathised with the cause. Many were unable to distinguish
between the militants and non-militants and there was a decline in
sympathy for the whole movement. The high profile militancy of the
Suffragettes, it can be argued, led in part to the rejection of
Asquith's 1911 bill which proposed that propertied women should get
the vote if there was a moratorium on demonstrations at the King's
coronation.
During the late nineteenth century, a small group of educated women,
in Manchester, and surrounding area, started to protest strongly about
the unequal franchise in the United Kingdom. Their group led by Lydia
Becker and Millicent Fawcett, began to petition for enfranchisement.
Their argument was that the government allowed disreputable men to
vote, but failed to realise that female landowners with money and
connections, simple honest housewives, society ladies, and working
class mothers were probably far more capable of sound decision-making[18].
This all hinged on men's lack of understanding that many women were
now well-educated even though they still needed permission to attend
lectures and were not allowed to obtain the degrees for which they
were qualified to hold.[19] Women had started to question men's
motives in their actions.Their demands for rights were confidently
argued and strongly political.
In the opinion of some writers, for example Joyce Marlow[20], it was
the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies led by Millicent
Garret Fawcett who won votes for women and not the Suffragettes.
During the years of arson and bombing, these women noted the rise of
the Labour Party, took account of its liberalism towards women's
enfranchisement, and worked hard to form an alliance with them. These
politically motivated women were amongst the many other non-militant
groups who lobbied for the inclusion of women in the 1918 Franchise
Act.
This group of non-militant feminists had worked in many areas of
social reform well before the outbreak of war. An example of this is
obtaining safer and healthier working conditions for female workers at
Briant and May's match factory following the matchgirls' strike which
had come about through working women's recruitment to the cause. In
this way they had made their mark amongst men who supported them in
and out of parliament and upon whom they were completely dependent for
the achievement of their principle causes - sexual equality and the
right to vote. These non-militant women had increased their standing
and their credibility so much that, had Britain had a Prime Minister
who was sympathetic to the feminists' cause, enfranchisement might
have been achieved much earlier than 1918. This is reinforced by the
fact that women on the Isle of Man were enfranchised in 1881!
The election of Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman as Prime Minister in 1905
proved to be the trigger that released the pent up frustration of the
militant feminists, marking the beginning of the period of violence
and civil disturbance for which the movement is best known. He
resigned in 1906 and H H Asquith became Prime Minister. He had
initially been sympathetic to the women's cause but the continuing
campaign of violence made it difficult for him to continue to be
supportive.
Christabel Pankhurst set up an arson campaign in 1911, which led to
mail boxes set alight, bombs sent through windows, attempted arson on
the Home Secretary: David Lloyd George's newly built house, and many
other actions.[21] The Suffragettes, during the seven months running
up to July 1914 participated in arson on eleven works of art in the
National Gallery. An insurance company estimated that the Suffragettes
caused £250,000 worth of damage in the first seven months of 1914.
[22] This alienated a huge section of the population. It has to be
remembered that, whilst many men and women supported the cause for
enfranchisement, there were far more who were opposed to it. Angered
by the actions of the Suffragettes, these people helped to return the
Liberals to power, albeit with a reduced majority. From this it could
be argued that, had there been less violence, the outcome of the 1910
election might have been different.
The following four years saw continuing acts of arson and bombing,
jailing and force-feeding which ended only with the outbreak of was in
1914. In 1912 the Labour Party declared itself to be in support of the
women's enfranchisement and the NUWSS/Labour alliance was formed.
Women were hopeful that the 1912 Reform Bill with its inclusion of
women would be successful.
"The passing of the Reform Bill with the inclusion of women will be
the outward and visible sign of a profound psychological change in the
attitude of men towards women and of women towards society - it marks
the growth of ideas."[23]
The Bill, however failed in 1913 following an alleged conspiracy
between H H Asquith and the speaker of the House of Commons. This
might suggest that with a more pro-Suffrage Prime Minister, some level
of enfranchisement may have happened before the war. Asquith is
reputed to have ruled that the inclusion of women in the Bill would
alter it so much that it would have to be rewritten and presented in
the future. This was the rejection that fuelled the Suffragettes'
rage.
It is at this point that I believe the outbreak of the Great War
became a significant factor in the struggle for enfranchisement. In
1913 David Lloyd George addressed the Men's Suffrage union, telling
them that he could not push unpopular bill through parliament. He went
on to say that the only two ways to do so were either "a great wave of
enthusiasm" or by using political means.
The outbreak of war stopped the Suffragettes' campaign in its tracks
as they rallied to support the country. They stopped being militant
and concentrated their efforts on the war effort. This turned out to
be rather productive, and the feel within the Suffragette movement was
positive over all. Mrs Pankhurst said at the outbreak of war: - 'It
was a war to prevent France the mother of European democracy …from
being crushed by the over-sexed, that is to say over-masculine,
country of Germany'[24]. Some feminists went further, however and
claimed that feminism also required pacifism[25], and although the
main feeling in the Suffragette movement was positive, there was a
small group of women that condemned the act of war; and this group
joined the Women's Freedom League, and the Women's Peace Council[26].
These two groups were militant organisations campaigning for suffrage,
although they also campaigned for pacifism, and thus condemned war[27].
Even though this move split up a force of women in emancipation, it
also showed many people that women had strong opinions and that they
could hold this opinion with pride and stand by them. Women were a
force to be reckoned with.
Meanwhile women were allowed for the first time to go into certain job
areas that they were denied a year earlier.[28] Women from all
backgrounds helped in the war effort, many of them working in the
munitions factories to produce ammunition for the soldiers in the
front lines.[29] Women took up posts all over the country, and
sometimes as doctors and nurses on the front line, as civilians
attached to the army.[30] The call to war work had a severe effect on
the ability of the upper class to retain female servants. The British
government was pleased by the Suffragettes willingness to participate,
and this, as well as pressure form other feminist groups like then the
WFL, and the WPC, made the politicians think about women and the vote
again[31]. With the war lingering on, women felt under more pressure
to participate in war work, to try and save their country from loosing
the war. Women's opinions about their suffrage increased, as they felt
that they were participating in the war effort as much as the
enfranchised men[32]. The politicians of the time stated that the
Suffragettes were taking a mature attitude to the crisis.
Amongst the women were a group who believed that they should work to
support their country but were against the enfranchisement of women.
This movement was the Anti-Suffrage movement.[33] The Anti movement
tried very hard to persuade MP's not to support the suffrage movement.
The Anti's worked as hard at war work as any other group during the
war. They worked continuously but produced economic, religious or
physical arguments such as 'Why should women be given the same rights
as men when they only do a quarter of the work?' and The Bible states
that "a women is only three fifths of a man."[34] Another argument
used by the Antis was that women were too physically weak to be able
to help ion the war, ands thus why should they be able to vote? The
heavy industrial work of the women in munitions factories making guns
and tanks rendered this argument invalid.
The government took a dim view of the "Anti"s and found them a
difficult group to understand as they were campaigning against their
own sex and against women's suffrage. Why were women trying to say
that they were unworthy of the vote? They found this confusing and
were unsure about the stability of certain sectors of women. Was it
right, therefore, to give all women the vote? Even though MP's were
unsure about this, they were certain that women were showing
themselves to be a positive influence and responsible group of people.
This was a positive response to emancipation, and brought the issue
another step closer to being resolved.
Women finally gained the right to vote in 1918, the year that the
Great war ended, although it is interesting to note that the group
given voting rights were those over thirty years of age, the women
least likely to have been evolved in war work. It would appear on the
surface that enfranchisement was given as a reward for their war work
in which they proved themselves to be capable of tasks previously done
by men. I think that the 1914-1918 war effected the decision to
enfranchise women but I feel that it was not the only factor. At the
end of the war, the loss of life caused a sharp dip in the male
population and if only men could vote, this would have an effect on
future elections. Enfranchising women increased the electorate
considerably. The victory over Germany produced a feeling of euphoria,
and defences against enfranchisement were lowered as a result of this,
allowing the pro-suffragists to win. Alienating the women who had kept
the country running for four years would not have been helpful in an
economic crisis in which there was a severe shortage of male labour.
In comparison with the economic disaster facing the British government
in 1918, the issue of female emancipation appears almost
insignificant.
Brian Harrison also suggested that the government feared a return of
pre-war Suffragette violence and gave in to pressure.
I believe that the women who worked for Britain in the Great War did
help to gain enfranchisement but I would argue that this was only the
final stage in the struggle. The fact that only older women were only
given the vote could suggest that, as the majority of the pre-war
feminist campaigners tended to be in the age group, their persuasion
over many decades had played it's part in influencing enfranchisement.
As the Labour Party had declared its support for women's suffrage in
1912, it is also very likely that enfranchisement would have been
granted with the eventual election of a Labour government.
My investigation brings me to conclude that the enfranchisement of
women came about as a result of many years of persuasion and argument
in a male-dominated society and a growing awareness of the need to
influence through political debate and alliances. The First World War,
too, was a highly significant event in the struggle owing to the
grinding economic crisis which gripped the country in the years
directly after it. In addition, the War provided women with the
opportunity to demonstrate the extent of their abilities at a time
when they were most needed. The outbreak of the Great War also
generated immense patriotism and the need to support Britain in its
struggle against Germany. This led the Suffragettes to abandon their
outrageous arson and bombing campaigns in favour of the war effort.
These circumstances undoubtedly helped women to achieve the first
steps to full enfranchisement.
[35]
[IMAGE]
A Timeline of the process of enfranchisement for women[36]
1792
Mary Woolstonecraft's 'Vindication of the right of Women' presents the
first clear statement about the need of equality for women.
1839
Custody of Infants Act gave access to women of 'unblemished character'
to their children after divorce.
1848
Women admitted to 'London University'
1850
North London Collegiate School for girls established
1854
Cheltenham Ladies College founded
1857
Matrimonial Causes Act set up divorce courts. Women can now have
access to divorce although only on a major charge other than adultery.
1867
John Stuart Mill publishes speech on 'Admission of Women to electoral
franchise'
1870
Married Women Property Act enables women to keep up to £200 of the
annual salary
Education Act provides elementary education for girls as well as boys
1871
Newnham College, Cambridge founded
1872
London School of Medicine for Women founded
Girton college moves to Cambridge
1873
Custody of Infants Act extended to all mothers
1876
Medical schools open to women
1882
Married Women's Property Act enables women to keep and manage own
property
1884
Married Women's Property Act makes women no longer a 'chattel' but an
independent and separate person
1886
Guardianship of Children Act means that women can be sole guardian if
husband dies
1894
Local Government Act enables women to vote for parochial councils
1897
Foundation of NUWSS by Millicent Fawcett
1903
WSPU founded by Emmeline Pankhurst
1907
Qualification of Women Act enabled women to become councillors
1910
Violent campaign for women suffrage started including 'hunger strikes'
and the 'arson campaign'
1913
Emily Davidson kills her self at the Derby
'Cat and Mouse Act' passed
1918
Representation of the People Act gives votes to women over 30
1919
Sex Disqualification Act opens up all professions to women except the
church
1923
Women allowed to obtain divorce on the grounds of adultery alone
1925
Married Women's Property Act require husband and wife to be treated as
individuals in any property transaction
1928
Representation of the People Act. Women over 21 were given the vote
Bibliography for history coursework
1. ' My Own Story': - Emmeline Pankhurst War Memoirs of David Lloyd
George, Volume II.
2. Aspects of British Political History 1815-1914: - Stephen .J. Lee
3. Mastering Modern British History, Macmillan Series, Second Edition:
- Norman Lowe
4. The Virgo book of Suffragettes: - Joyce Marlow
5. The suffragette publicity poster, a copy will be placed in the back
of the bibliography.
6. Ahead of her time: A sampler of the life and thought of Mary
Woolstonecraft'
: -Mary Woolstonecraft
7. 'Unshackled': - Christabel Pankhurst,
8. The First World War and Feminism in Britain': - Brian Harrison
