The purpose of this research paper is to present our findings on how the psychological factors of motivation and self-esteem contribute to male academic underperformance in the Caribbean Examinations Council's (CXC) examinations

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Purpose and Rationale

The purpose of this research paper is to present our findings on how the psychological factors of motivation and self-esteem contribute to male academic underperformance in the Caribbean Examinations Council’s (CXC) examinations. The two independent variables which are being considered in this study are motivation and self-esteem and male academic underperformance is the dependent variable. The rationale for preparing this paper is that for many years it has been seen that males have been underperforming at all levels of school; however little has been done to manage this problem. We chose to focus on the secondary level of education because it is at this point in life where the adolescent is forced to make crucial decisions in terms of what field of study and to a lesser extent what career they are going to pursue. Male underperformance is a significant problem which arose some years ago in our society. The reason for male underperformance has been greatly debated by many with the blame being primarily placed on the introduction of co-education. This research will consider how the psychological factors of motivation and self esteem and how they can impact on male academic performance.

Background: Male Underperformance

An academic underachiever is a person and especially a student who fails to achieve his or her potential or does not do as well as expected in their studies. In the Caribbean there has been a situation where there is an alarming number of male underachievers, especially in subject areas which are not technical. Before co-educational schools were introduced male academic performance was rather good because schools were not seen as a place for females. Even when female students were introduced into the school system they were restricted to areas which were termed feminine and would help them with their development as women.  But as the barriers and boundaries in education began to be broken down and females started to enter areas which were termed masculine they began to outperform their male counterparts.

Hypothesis

Lack of motivation and self-esteem negatively impact on the performance of secondary school males in the CXC examinations in non-technical areas such as English, and Spanish; causing males to underachieve academically in comparison to females.  

Research Question

How do the factors of motivation and self-esteem affect the academic performance of males in secondary schools?

Motivational Theories

David McClelland: Need for Achievement

        McClelland stated that the need to achieve is “the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed” (Robbins and Decenzon, 2001, p. 317).

Research by McClelland found that a person’s degree of competitiveness can have an effect on that person’s achievement. He found that persons with a high degree of competitiveness had lower degrees of achievement. In this study he also found that “students with the highest grades were those who had high work and mastery scores” (Morris and Maisto, 2002, p. 369)

Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs

        This theory asserts that there is a hierarchy of five human needs, as each need is satisfied the individual seeks to satisfy the next need in the hierarchy. The needs in the hierarchy are physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs and self-actualization needs. In regards to this study problems arise in the transition from social needs to esteem needs. Males who have not been afforded the satisfaction of affection, the feeling of acceptance and friendship (social needs) will find it difficult to make the transition to the next level in the hierarchy (esteem needs) where the focus should be on factors such as autonomy and achievement. Males who find it difficult to progress through these two stages of the hierarchy will definitely have difficulty achieving their academic potential and becoming what they are truly capable of (self actualization).

Victor Vroom: Expectancy Theory

        This theory states that an individual is likely to act in a certain way on the basis of the expectation that the act will be followed by a certain outcome and the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. The theory is explained using three variables or relationships. Effort-performance linkage is the perception that exerting a certain amount of effort will lead to performance. Performance-reward linkage is where the individual believes that performing at a particular level will lead to the accomplishment of a desired outcome; and Attractiveness is the importance the individual places on the potential outcome or reward that can be achieved. Also considered in this relationship are the individual’s goals and needs (Robbins & Decenzo, 2001)

Literature Review

“The Caribbean is one of the few regions in the world were there are more illiterate men than women (Superville, 1991, p. 1) “There is the perception that females routinely outperform males at all levels of the curriculum (Drayton, 1995). Results of early research in the region (Hamilton 1975, 1981) parallel those in the developed world (Swann 1999, Cohen 1999) as far as the observation that there is a sex-linked pattern of academic achievement. Boys outperformed girls in science subjects and girls dominated in the humanities. More recent studies indicated that this trend continues (Morris 1991, Bailey 1997b, Clevannes 1999, Harewood 2000)” (Carrington, 2003, p.40).It has been said that differences in brain size, hemispheric dominance and hormones afford females better verbal skills and males better visual spatial skills (Carrington, 2003, pp.27-28). On average girls develop faster than boys, and as a result, begin school ahead on many cognitive and physical attributes (Arends, 1994).  There is a link between these contrasting traits and certain subject areas. Science and Mathematics with their focus on natural phenomena and the world of objects are based on rationality and logic. The humanities, on the other hand, are more concerned with the exploration of emotions where attributes such as empathy and intuition are important. Given the link between traits perceived as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ and certain subject areas, formal education has therefore been used as the means of equipping males and females with the skills required for functioning in what has been designated their primary respective domains (Whitehead, 1996). At the time of entry to secondary school, girls are experiencing the rapid growth associated with the adolescence which starts, on average, two years before that of boys. Girls have acquired better verbal skills, and consistently score higher. Furthermore, girls’ socialization is thought to place them at an advantage. Girls are subjected to discipline and restraint in the home and are therefore better prepared for the traditional environment of the school (Drayton 1995, Figueroa 1996). According to Evans (1999), when one’s social identity accords with the values of the school, one is more likely to participate in school activities to succeed in school” (Carrington, 2003, p.30).

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        “Why is there all this fuss about boys when girls were allowed to underachieve for decades? Why should we be bothered when it seems to most observers that boys are the authors of their own misfortune?” (Noble, Brown & Murphy, 2001, p.1). The answer is ‘every underachieving boy is a small tragedy for the individual; but a cohort of underachieving men will be a huge problem for any society” (Noble, Brown & Murphy, 2001, p.1). We now have to ask ourselves, what is the root of the problem?

Motivation

“Research indicates that there are differences in achievement of male ...

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