Beethoven & the Symphonic Genre
Benjamin Scott
March 28, 2004
Beethoven & the Symphonic Genre
Beethoven had a great influence on the genre of the classical symphony. The form has changed dramatically since Haydn's first symphonies in the 1750s. Both Haydn and Mozart had influence on Beethoven's symphonies. Beethoven then developed his own style which transformed the genre.
Before you can appreciate Beethoven's contributions to the genre, you must recognize his inspirations. First of all, Joseph Haydn is traditionally considered the 'father' of the symphony. While this is not exactly true, the symphony became a definitive form in the hands of Haydn. The form evolved from several genres, including the Baroque concerto grosso, the 'church sonata', and the Italian opera overture. Schools of symphonic writing developed in several European cities in the early 18th century, but Haydn's symphonies mainly follow in the tradition of his home city, Vienna (Grove online).
Haydn wrote 106 symphonies, some of them three movements in length (fast-slow-fast), while many are four movements. His earlier symphonies have a style of "virtuoso brilliance" and "courtly splendor" as he composed them in the court of Esterházy. Later symphonies include remote keys, rhythmic and harmonic complexities, expansion of dimensions and harmonic range, rhythmic instability, dynamic extremes, greater technical difficulty, and increased use of counterpoint (Webster). The symphonies mainly follow the standard tonic-dominant relation form of the time. Beethoven briefly studied composition with Haydn in Vienna in 1792.
Mozart had as much an impact on Beethoven as Haydn did. Although Beethoven only briefly met and played for Mozart in 1787, Beethoven greatly admired Mozart and considered him to be the best composer of the time. Likewise, Mozart was very impressed by Beethoven's abilities, and declared that Beethoven would "give the world something to talk about". According to Charles Rosen, it seems that Beethoven was inspired by Mozart's most imaginative and radical compositions.
Orchestral music in the 1760's was considered to be an intimate affair, as most concerts took places in private courts. In the last quarter of the century, composers realized the possibilities of composing for large ensembles as well as concerts outside the court, and their music reflects this. For example, Mozart's ideal orchestra would have included 40 violins, 10 violas, 6 celli, 10 basses, and doubled wind parts. It is very unlikely that he ever had an orchestra of that size, but this is what he had in mind when composing his later symphonies. From the 1780's on, composers wrote with this size orchestra in mind (Rosen 143-4). Beethoven's symphonies also required the use of a larger ensemble than the traditional Classical orchestra, especially the ninth which also adds a choir.
To the untrained listener, Beethoven's first Symphony in C Major Op. 21 (1799-1800) sounds similar to many of Haydn and Mozart's symphonies, especially in structure. However, the first critic that reviewed the work found that "the wind instruments were used far too much" (Downs 592). This is one of Beethoven's greatest influences on the genre. Previously, symphonies were almost large chamber pieces, written mainly for strings, with woodwind accompaniment. Beethoven realized the possibilities of writing more for winds and brass and less for strings.
Compared to Haydn's last symphonies, Beethoven's first symphony has a tighter motivic organization ...
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To the untrained listener, Beethoven's first Symphony in C Major Op. 21 (1799-1800) sounds similar to many of Haydn and Mozart's symphonies, especially in structure. However, the first critic that reviewed the work found that "the wind instruments were used far too much" (Downs 592). This is one of Beethoven's greatest influences on the genre. Previously, symphonies were almost large chamber pieces, written mainly for strings, with woodwind accompaniment. Beethoven realized the possibilities of writing more for winds and brass and less for strings.
Compared to Haydn's last symphonies, Beethoven's first symphony has a tighter motivic organization and a coarseness of sound and gesture that stands out from Haydn. This piece opens with a slow introduction, like many of Haydn's symphonies, but he purposely delays the tonic until the Allegro begins. The first chord is a dominant seventh, and while it sounds fairly ordinary today, it was a surprising, unprepared dissonance to Classical audiences. Beethoven creatively uses secondary dominants and other harmonies to keep the listener wondering what key the piece is actually in. The symphony generally follows the standard four movement structural format. The main exception is the third movement; in the past composers would write a minuet and trio. While the movement still bears the title "Minuetto," it is much too fast for a traditional minuet. Instead, Beethoven, almost jokingly, demonstrates the rhythmically disturbed character that we know of as a "scherzo."
The first movement of the symphony fits the Classical symphonic style, and includes characteristics that are typical of Mozart. For example, the sequence of the opening motive rises while the rhythm is compressed (mm. 41 - 44). This technique of creating tension by increasing rhythmic activity is typical of Mozart. Another example is the passage from the development to the recapitulation (mm. 174 - 177), where the modulation to the tonic is initiated by the use of a sustained dominant seventh chord. Also, the introduction to the movement is relatively short, remains in the key of C, and avoids closure. These are characteristics of the Classical symphony form (Broyles 55). Lastly, the second movement of the symphony has several similarities to the second movement of Mozart's g minor (K. 550) symphony. Both are in a slow compound meter, both begin with a theme that begins with a dominant upbeat, and both begin with repeated eighth notes and then a sixteenth and thirty-second note motive. This piece marks Beethoven's entrance into the symphonic genre.
Finished in 1804, the Third Symphony in Eb Op. 55, Eroica, was very remarkable at the time. This piece was the first to set Beethoven apart from the traditional symphonic form. According to Rosen, this piece was "the first of Beethoven's immense expansions of classical form" (Rosen 392). The most obvious expansion is its length; no one had written a symphony as long as the Eroica. Apparently, critics complained about the length and the lack of unity. I agree with Rosen, who states that the "unity is so intense that a cello-oboe duet ... in the development is directly derived from the main theme" (Rosen 393). Other innovative features of the symphony include "evolving themes, transitions between widely separated passages, actual thematic recurrences from one movement to another, and ... the involvement of extra-musical ideas by means of ... a few tantalizing titles" (Kerman 107).
In the first movement, Beethoven expands the form in several different ways. After the startling, powerful opening chords, the melody descends to a low C#, with syncopations in the violins (mm. 7 - 8). The mysterious C# is not fully understood until the beginning of the recapitulation, when Beethoven reinterprets it as a Db, which resolves to C and leads to a horn solo in F Major (mm. 402 - 408).
Another of Beethoven's innovations is his expansion of the development and coda sections. In this movement, the development section is 245 bars, much longer than the 155 bars of the exposition, and the coda, at 140 bars, is almost the length of the recapitulation. His use of rhythmic fragmentation and compression is apparent in the climax of the development. Beethoven's rhythmic process involves accented syncopated dissonances (mm. 248 - 279), which practically breaks the thematic material right when the recapitulation would be expected. Then he surprisingly introduces a new theme in the distant key of e minor, which is later resolved to the tonic in the coda.
The second movement, Marcia funebre, was unique at the time for having a non-musical title attached to it. Beethoven had written a funeral march in his Piano Sonata in Ab Major, Op. 26 (1801), which was so popular that it was played at Beethoven's own funeral procession in 1827 (Kinderman 93). As in the first symphony, Beethoven gave importance to the woodwinds, especially the oboe. This movement is widely recognizable for the same reasons as the popular opening of his Fifth Symphony - Beethoven's inventive way of developing a movement or entire work out of a single rhythmic motive. Thus, many of his works can be recognized by the rhythm alone, without any melody. The Scherzo movement of the Eroica is a complete contrast from the previous movement. In the trio section, Beethoven gives the horns the melody in the key of Eb, in three part harmony. This was the first time ever that three horns were used in a symphony.
Beethoven's Ninth Symphony in d minor, Op. 125, Choral (1824), is just as unique and innovative as the Eroica. First of all, like the Eroica, the piece was unique because of its massive length. The first three movements take about half an hour to perform, as long as most classical (Haydn & Mozart) symphonies. The Last movement is another half an hour by itself. Secondly, Beethoven introduces the use of a chorus in a symphony, a very innovative idea that influenced many composers later on. The beginning of the symphony is unique in that the piece seems to start from silence, and then the main theme is not introduced until the 17th bar. William Kinderman remarks, "The hushed beginning, with its ambiguity of key, mode, and even rhythm, shows the impress of the journey out of the sphere of the inaudible into that of the audible" (267).
Each individual movement expands the forms of Beethoven's earlier symphonies. In the opening movement, the development and coda sections are unusually extensive and directly related to each other. The coda even seems to be the recapitulation of the development. Beethoven also foreshadows the "Joy" theme in bar 80 of the first movement. For the first time, Beethoven put his Scherzo movement before the slow movement. The Scherzo begins as a five-voice fugue, and when the trio begins, he continues the contrapuntal harmony. The rest of the movement is a standard scherzo, including repeats and a da capo. The third movement is made up of two themes, the first in Bb, common time (mm. 1), and the second in D, triple meter (mm. 25). These two themes are alternated back and forth, and the first theme is varied with melodic ornaments. This method of variation is common in Haydn but not Beethoven's symphonies.
In the Finale, Beethoven restates themes from the previous movements, unifying the work. The woodwinds hint at the coming choral theme before the full theme is played in D Major. The low strings play the theme softly in unison. Gradually, Beethoven adds instruments and new harmonies through the entire exposition. After a loud presto passage, he introduces the solo baritone, and eventually the entire four-part chorus. In addition, for the first time in a symphony, Beethoven adds a piccolo, contra-bassoon, triangle, cymbals, and a bass drum to the orchestra (Burke 297).
According to William Kinderman, the overall form of this movement is a combination of the concerto and sonata form with variations and almost a four-movement design in a single movement. Concerto features include the double-exposition of the orchestra and then choral variations, as well as the cadenza for the vocal soloists. Kinderman explains that "the following overall sequence may be seen as outlining a 'multi-movement' plan: (I) the theme and initial variations in D major; (2) the 6/8 scherzo section with 'Turkish' orchestration; (3) the archaic Andante-Adagio passages featuring trombones and modal tendencies; (4) the final sections beginning with the choral double fugue" (279). This massive finale of Beethoven's ninth has proved to be very influential for many composers after him. Mahler, Bruckner, Wagner, Brahms, and many other composers all greatly admired Beethoven, and based their compositions on his innovations.
Lastly, I want to mention that before Beethoven, the conductor was not a very important person as far as interpreting the music of a symphony. When Beethoven explained to individual orchestra members how he wanted certain passages played, and demanded slight expressive variations of tempo, it was an orchestral novelty, and even considered eccentric. Charles Rosen writes, "to play a symphony of Mozart or Haydn as if it were a sonata, interpreted and molded in an individual way by a conductor, is to betray its nature...the music of the 19th century...demands the services of the virtuoso conductor..." (144).
As one can tell, Beethoven enormously changed the symphonic genre through his innovations and unconventional methods. He influenced generations of composers and musicians after him and will always be considered one of the greatest symphonic composers.
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