There are three basic pathways or energy systems which govern the replenishment of ATP and therefore energy supply. The system used depends on how immediate the energy is required, how intense the activity, and whether or not oxygen is present. The three energy systems are:
- The ATP-PC system
- The lactic acid system
- The aerobic system
The more intense the activity, the more I will rely on anaerobic energy production from the ATP-PC pathway. For example, if I were to do a series of short sprints in my training programme, then the energy system used would be anaerobic. The less intense and the longer the duration of the activity the more I will rely on the aerobic system of energy production.
The ATP-PC system
This is an anaerobic system- i.e. oxygen is not used. This energy system involves the rapid regeneration of ATP through the energy rich compound creatine phosphate. The energy derived from phosphocreatine is not directly used for muscle contraction, but instead rebuilds ATP so that it can once again be broken down to maintain a constant supply of energy. Once the ATP is broken down to ADP (adenosine diphosphate), a free phoshate and energy used for muscular work must be resynthesised.
ATP ADP + Pi + ENERGY
CP C + Pi + ENERGY
This energy system should be used for explosive activities lasting roughly 10 seconds. If the exercise continues after the 8-10 second threshold of this system, the muscles must rely on other sources of energy. This energy system is used in a tennis serve for example, as the action is ballistic and requires a lot of energy quickly.
The lactic acid pathway
Once the phosphocreatine has been depleted within the muscle, ATP must be resynthesised from glycogen. Carbohydrate is eaten in the form of sugar or starch and is stored in the muscles or liver as glycogen. Before glycogen can be used as an energy source for ATP resynthesis, it must be converted into the compound glucose-6-phoshate, requiring one molecule of ATP for this. The degradation of a glucose molecule to liberate energy is called glycolysis. In the initial stages of the process oxygen is not present and so is called anaerobic glycolysis.
Once the glycogen has been converted to glucose-6-phoshate, glycolysis can occur, and pyruvic acid id formed, which in the absence of oxygen is converted to lactic acid which unfortunately causes cramp and therefore pain because the change of environment in muscles for enzymes. It causes fatigue in the muscles and is only relieved by the presence of oxygen.
The lactic acid system frees only a small amount of energy from the glycogen molecule (about 5%). It does however release energy quickly and provides energy between 10 seconds and three minutes. This kind of energy system is suitable in tennis for rallies where intervals between hitting the ball last only a couple of seconds.
The Aerobic system
The remaining 95% of energy is released from the glucose molecule aerobically. This system requires the presence of oxygen. And has a tremendous energy yield (18 times greater than the anaerobic processes) and takes roughly 3 minutes to extract the remaining 95% energy. The initial stages of the aerobic process are similar to the lactic acid process except that the pyruvic acid formed is converted to acetyl-coenzyme A as oxygen is now present, which is combined with oxaloacetic acid to form citric acid before it enters the Krebs cycle. Under these aerobic conditions, the glucose molecule is broken down further in the cell by mitochondria. These lie adlacent to myofibrils and exist throughout the sarcoplasm. Slow twitch fibres possess a greater number of mitochondria than fast twitch fibres, enabling them to provide a continuous supply of energy over a long period of time.
The Krebs cycle
Once formed, citric acid enters the krebs cycle which takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria.
- Citric acid is oxidised whereby hydrogen is removed from the compound.
- As a result, carbon and oxygen are left; they combine to produce carbon dioxide, excreted via the lungs.
- In addition energy sufficient to resynthesise ATP is released.
During the Krebs cycle, the glucose molecule has been downgraded to release hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The hydrogen is taken to the electron transport system which is the final stage of the process.
It is important for me to train all energy systems to maximum efficiency in order to utilise the glucose. This is because in tennis all three pathways are used. For example, the ATP-PC pathway in the serve, followed by the lactic acid system in a short, intense rally, followed by the aerobic system when the rally is less intense (i.e. when you have control over the rally).
It is important to choose a correct method of training that is relevant to my sport
Continuous training
This is a type of training, which develops endurance and puts stress upon the aerobic energy. It is a performance of rhythmic exercise at a steady rate or low intensity, which use the large muscle groups of the body over a long period of time. Jogging, swimming and cycling are all ways of continuous training. This type of training means it takes longer for a lactate build up, meaning I can carry on for longer as I will not be suffering from fatigue and cramp that lactic acid causes. There is however a danger of injury to my joints and muscles as they are being put under an excessive amount of stress. It is not sport specific as there is no skill work involved. It can also be very tedious as it is so repetitive. However it is essential to include some continuous work to improve the cardio-respiratory system.
Fartlek, or speedplay
This is a slightly different version of continuous training, as it involves a change in speed or intensity throughout the activity. This means that I can train both the aerobic and anaerobic. Fartlek sessions should last for a minimum of 45 minutes. Intensity can vary from a low intensity walk, to a high intensity sprint. Here is an example of a session:
- Jog 5min (aerobic)
- Fast walk 3min (aerobic)
- Fast run with 50m sprints every 200m (anaerobic- ATP-PC system)
- Even run with 10 fast strides every 200m (aerobic & anaerobic)
- Fast skipping (anaerobic-lactic acid system)
Fartlek training is ideal for tennis. This is because both aerobic and anaerobic systems are needed in tennis, as there is much speed change. For example, a short jog to the back of the court from the net to receive a lob, followed by a sprint to the net to receive a drop shot.
Intermittent training
This is where a session is broken down into short periods of intense activity and recovery breaks. This means that I am unlikely to find the session dull, and can focus on anaerobic exercise. This can be useful in tennis, as activity can be very intense and continuous over a short period, for example I was volleying at the net, where would be receiving the ball quicker than if I let the ball bounce. Also a short burst of power is needed in the serve.
Interval training
This is a very popular type of training used in sport. This is because it can be adapted to suit any sport, although is most commonly used in swimming, cycling and athletics. It can be also used for either aerobic or anaerobic abilities. It enables my body to exercise at the specific intensity necessary to train the relevant energy system for that activity. For tennis, it is important to train all three energy systems; the alactic acid or ATP-PC system, the lactic acid system and the aerobic system. Interval training can train all of these systems. In order to train the relevant energy system, the following variables have been identified which can be manipulated:
- Distance of the work interval (duration)
- Intensity of the work interval (speed)
- The number of repetitions within a session
- The number of sets within a session
- Duration of the rest interval
- Activity during the rest interval
When deciding on what activity will take place in the actual interval training session, these guidelines must be followed in order use, or train the relevant energy system:
- To train the ATP-PC system, the duration of the work period should last between 3-10 seconds, or an equivalent distance that can be covered in that time at the highest intensity.
- Intensity should be calculated by the athlete working at a percentage of their maximum effort or personal best time for the distance. It should be 90-100% for the ATP-PC system.
- The number of repetitions depends upon the duration of the session. For the ATP-PC system, the work interval is very short, and up to 50 short intense bouts within a session can be completed.
- To avoid fatigue, the repetitions should be divided into sets. For example, if I was doing strength training by performing 50 triceps extensions, I could do 5 sets X 10 reps at all out effort of 90-100%.
- Between each set is a period of rest. The length of this period of rest is determined by how long it takes for the heart rate to return to about 150 beats per minute. It can be compared to the work interval time, expressed as the work: relief (rest) ratio. For the ATP-PC system where the work interval is relatively short, the rest period may take three times that before the heart lowers to 150bpm this would be expressed as work: relief ratio of 1: 3.
- The type of activity that takes place duri8ng these rest intervals differs, depending upon the energy system being trained. The ATP-PC system for example requires no activity apart from light stretching, and the lactic acid system will require light jogging or walking to get rid of the build up.
For the lactic acid system, an exercise period of between 15 seconds and 90 seconds should be performed at a moderate intensity. To get rid of lactic acid build up, up to twelve repetitions may be completed over two or three sets with a work to relief ratio of 1: 2. To speed up the removal of lactate during the resting period, jogging or light walking should be completed.
To train the aerobic system, the work interval should be longer, roughly seven or eight minutes. The intensity should be moderate but faster than the pace of continuous training. Fewer sets are needed, as the exercise periods are longer. For example, three or four repetitions in one set.
The requirements of an interval training session can be expressed as the interval training prescription
Circuit training
Circuit training involves performing a number of calisthenic exercises in succession. This could include abdominal curls, press-ups, step-ups etc. Each exercise (or station) is usually performed for a set amount of time or for a set number of repetitions. You can adapt the circuit to meet the specific fitness requirements of a given sport or activity therefore, for my tennis specific training programme, I will make it relevant and specific to tennis.
When planning a circuit, the following factors will need to be considered;
- The number of participants
- The standard of fitness
- The amount of time, space and equipment that is available.
When designing a circuit, it is important I do not exercise the same body part consecutively, unless performing a circuit, which will overload the endurance of one muscle group being trained. If the circuit is not one muscle group specific then the sequence of stations should be varied, for example; arms, trunk, cardio-vascular, legs, arms, trunk, cardio-vascular etc. This way of training makes exercise varied and therefore I am more likely to find it more interesting and will be more likely to keep doing it. It also means that all muscle groups can be trained. This is very important as most muscle groups are used in tennis and circuit training will provide general conditioning. With regular testing, improvements in fitness are easily visible through circuit training as previous results can be compared with the current one. It is also possible to make a skill specific circuit for your sport. For tennis, this involves a series of drills within a circuit, on the tennis court. This will improve all skills because at each station, a particular skill is focused on.
Strength training
Weight or resistance training is the ways in which I can achieve strength gain. It can be used to develop several components of fitness, including strength, strength endurance and explosive power. Which of these are stressed at a particular time depends on the weight or resistance, the number of repetitions and the number of sets. In tennis, when maximum strength is required, for example in the service (explosive strength) training methods, which increase muscle strength, will be required. This will include some form of relatively high resistance, low repetition exercise.
It is important to realise the following for power development;
- That the movement and contraction period must be explosive to ensure that the muscle works rapidly
- To use very high loads or resistance which will encourage the muscle to recruit all its motor units
- To ensure the muscle recovers fully between sets, enabling the relevant energy source to recover.
In tennis, strength endurance is also very important, and I should include it in the training programme. It is important particularly in a rally, as a lot of strength is needed to endure every shot. A different approach to training will be required. A lighter weight should be used, to enable more repetitions.
Strength training can be designed for:
- Pure strength (the ability to resist a force)
- Speed
- Explosive power
- Strength endurance
Increasing resistance will increase my pure strength, and decreasing resistance will allow for the development in speed. Increasing repetitions will increase strength endurance, which is what I need to improve. The degree of resistance is quoted as a percentage of the repetitions maximum (RM). I.e. the maximum load that can be moved correctly with six repetitions. For example, 15 X 50% RM for strength endurance.
Plyometrics
Plyometrics enables muscles to generate more force in contraction when they have previously been stretched. Plyometrics takes the muscle through an eccentric (lengthening) phase before a powerful concentric (shortening) phase. This stimulates adaptation within the neuromuscular system whereby the muscle spindles within the muscle causing a stretch reflex. Muscle spindle apparatus are very sensitive receptors, which exist between skeletal muscle fibres, to help control the muscle movement smoothly and safely. They relay information via concerning the state of muscle contraction and the length or extension of the muscle. When a muscle is stretched, the spindle is stretched and it sends and it sends an impulse to the spinal cord, indicating how much and how fast the muscle has stretched. If stretched too far, the muscle spindle apparatus will alter tension within the muscle and cause a stretch reflex, whereby the muscle is automatically shortened. In plyometrics, the quadriceps lengthens quickly upon landing. The spindles detect the lengthening and send afferent impulses to the spinal cord, which then relay motor neurones to the quadriceps initiating the stretch reflex causing a very powerful shortening of the muscle group and enables the athlete to bound upwards. This prevents muscle damage and produces more powerful concentric contraction of the muscle group. This is essentially important in the tennis service as jumping is required to gain power behind the serve. Exercises that I may include in a plyometrics session are;
- Hopping
- Jumping
- Leaping
- Skipping
- Depth jumps (jumping off and onto boxes)
Power is determined by the force exerted by the muscle (strength) and the speed at which the muscle shortens:
Power = Force X Velocity
This means that by improving either strength or speed of shortening, power may be improved. Plyometrics improves the speed at which muscle shorten.
Mobility stretching
This is a type of training to improve flexibility. Flexibility is a range of movement at a joint. Effective flexibility training can improve performance and reduce the possibility of injury. During repeated and regular stretching muscle tissue has been shown to elongate. There are two types of stretching;
- Active stretching- the athlete holds the stretch for a period of 30-60 seconds. By consciously relaxing the target muscle at the limit of the range of motion. Muscle obligation may occur following regular contraction.
- Passive stretching- this is the range of movement that can occur with the aid of external force. This is general performed with the aid of a partner, but resistance can also be offered through gravity and body weight.
Stretching should only be performed after a thorough warm-up where an increase in body temperature has occurred. This can be done by a period of light cardio vascular exercise, centring on the muscles groups to be stretched. This can be done by a short, light intensity jog.
There are a variety of flexibility techniques that I may include in my training programme:
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation
(PNF) is a method of flexibility training emerged from passive stretching. This decreases the reflex shortening of the muscle being stretched, which now occurs when a muscle is stretched to its limit. Here is one PNF technique;
- Move slowly to the limit of my range of motion with a help from a partner.
- Just before the point of discomfort, isometrically contract the muscle being stretched for between 6 and 10 seconds.
- After the hold, the muscle will release, having stimulated the golgi tendon organ response that causes further relaxation of the muscle with the aid of a partner. PNF stretching relies on the fact that when a muscle contracts isometrically when stretched, the stretch reflex mechanism of the muscle spindles is switched off, and therefore enables the muscle to stretch further than before.
A new limit of the muscle stretch may occur but athletes should not stretch beyond the slight discomfort.
There have been studies conducted that show athletes may only replace 29% of the fluid that they lost during practice or a game. One problem may be that water can sometimes shut off the osmotic drive (thirst mechanisms) that you get for drinking. As little as 1 pint of water can turn this mechanism off even though you may have lost 4 pints of fluid. Also, this doesn’t help replace the electrolytes that were lost through the sweat. Average sodium concentration in sweat is around 3.6 grams of sodium per liter of sweat. Cramp prone athletes may lose 6 grams of sodium per liter of fluid. As you can see water may be only part of the answer to restoring proper hydration to your body. Somehow you have to replace the sodium, potassium and other electrolytes that were lost as well as the fluid.
New research has shown that drinking flavoured water or sport drinks has proven to be a better hydrator than just plain water. This is because I am more likely to drink a fluid and continue to drink when it tastes good or it has a flavor to it. Sport drinks are superior to flavoured water because they provide the electrolytes as well as taste good. Sport drinks are also less likely to shut off the thirst mechanisms because it provides low amounts of sodium, which may actually elicit a thirst response.
As I will be doing regular exercise during the training programme, re-hydration is vital because it only takes 1-2% dehydration to affect performance. Drinking plenty of water throughout the day and replacing fluids at practice with a sports drink will suffice this.
The warm-upA good warm up, will improve the effectiveness of training. A warm-up should make the body ready for exercise, and prevents injury and muscle soreness. The benefits of a warm-up physiologically, include:
- The release of adrenaline will increase heart rate and dilate capillaries, which in turn enable greater amounts and increased speed of oxygen and blood delivery to the muscles.
- Increased muscle temperatures associated with exercise will facilitate enzyme activity; this increases muscle metabolism and therefore ensures a readily available supply of energy through the breakdown of glycogen.
- Increased temperatures also lead to decreased viscosity within the muscle enabling a greater extensibility and elasticity of muscle fibres, which ultimately leads to, increased speed and force of contraction.
- Warm-ups also make us more alert, due to an increase in the speed of nerve impulse conduction.
- Increased production of synovial fluid ensures efficient movement of joints.
A warm-up should be specific to the activity that follows, so in the case of my training programme, the warm-up should be specifically related to tennis. It should include exercises that prepare the muscles to be used and activate the energy systems required for that particular.
The following stages should be followed in a warm-up;
- The heart rate needs to be increased first, which increases the speed of oxygen delivery to the muscles as well as raising the body’s temperature. Cardiovascular exercise such as jogging will achieve this.
- The athlete can perform some flexibility or stretching exercise as body temperature has been increased. It is essential that both static stretches and some calisthenic type activities are performed where the muscle is working over its full range.
- The final stage of the warm-up should involve a sport-specific or skill related component where the neuro-muscular mechanisms related to the activity to follow are worked. For example, practising a serve or having a rally before the tennis match commences.
Cool-down
Following the activity itself, a similar process must be followed in order to prevent any discomfort, such as sore muscles. It involves performing some light intensity exercise where heart rate remains elevated. The purpose is to keep metabolic activity high, and capillaries dilated, so that the oxygen can be circulated through the muscle tissue, removing and oxidising any lactic acid that remains. This will therefore prevent blood pooling in the veins that can cause dizziness if exercise is stopped abruptly. DOMS (Delayed Onset of Muscle Soreness) can also be limited as a result of the cool-down. DOMS is characterised by tender and painful muscles often experienced in the days after heavy exercise. Soreness occurs as a result of damage to muscle fibres and connective tissue surrounding the fibres. The muscle fibres will repair themselves within a few days, and so any soreness is only temporary. DOMS is most likely to occur following eccentric contraction and can result from weight training, plyometrics and even from walking down a steep hill.
The final part of the cool down should involve a period of stretching exercises, which should hopefully facilitate and improve flexibility, as the muscles are very warm at this stage.
The principles of training
The principles of training are essentially the rules or laws that strengthen a training programme.
Specificity-
The law of specificity suggests that any training undertaken should be relevant ant and appropriate to the sport for which the individual is training for. As I have chosen the sport tennis, the training programme needs to be relevant in many ways. For example most of the training should be done on land. Land based training would be more beneficial than pool based training because the environment is appropriate to tennis. It is also important to relate the training to the predominantly used energy system. In tennis, the aerobic system is used more than the anaerobic system, and therefore most of the training should be aerobic related.
In terms of muscle groups, specificity will be used by performing drills, exercises and weights, which replicate the action of various shots in tennis. For example triceps extensions could replicate the action of a tennis serve or smash.
Progressive overload
This principle considers how intense the training programme should be. In order for the body to improve in health related factors, the training should be at an intensity that is outside their comfort zone. This is where the individual will feel some discomfort or pain. If exercise takes place on a regular basis the body’s systems will adapt and start to cope with these stresses that have been imposed. In order for further improvements to occur, the intensity of the exercise will need to be gradually increased. This is called progression.
Reversibility
Performance will deteriorate over time if training ceases or the intensity decreases for extended periods of time.
Overtraining
It is common to overtrain in the months leading up to a competition. If I were to increase training loads and frequency of training as high as possible in order to reach my greatest possible fitness levels for an improved performance then fatigue, loss of appetite, muscle tenderness, sleep disturbance and head colds could occur. To combat overtraining, I should have a long-lasting rest with training workloads reduced.
The F.I.T.T. Regime
When designing my training programme it is important to include the F.I.T.T.
- F = frequency of training
- I = intensity of exercise
- T = time or duration of exercise
- T = type of training
Frequency of Training
This is how often the training will be performed. For my training programme, I will gradually build up the number of days that I will train on. This refers to the principle of progression. I will do aerobic training on most days, but more intense activities or anaerobic activities will be done sufficiently less times during the week, with a maximum of four days a week as after strength or speed work rest days are needed for the body’s tissues to repair themselves following high intensity work.
Intensity of the exercise
This depends on the type of training occurring and can be difficult to measure how intense the exercise should be or actually is. For aerobic training, calculating your training zone can measure exercise intensity. This is represented by the training heart rate and so involves observing heart rate values, which has become easier with the arrival of the heart rate monitor.
The karvonen principle is a recognized method of calculating the training zone. Karvonen developed a formula to identify correct training intensities as a percentage of the sum of the maximum heart rate reserve and resting heart rate..
An individual’s maximal heart rate can be calculated by subtracting their age from 220.
Maximal heart rate reserve = HR(max) – HR(rest)
Maximal heart rate = 220-age
Maximal heart rate for a 17 year old = 220 –17
= 203 beats per minute
My maximal heart rate is 203 bpm as I am 17 years old.
Time or duration of exercise
How long the actual training session will be. For aerobic activities, the athlete should be training within their training zone for a minimum of 20-30 minutes. However duration should not be considered in isolation since intensity of training often determines the duration of the training session.
Type or mode of training
This refers to the type of training. I.e. interval training, weight training etc.
Tennis Interval Training -- Cross drill
1.Holding a racket stand at one far corner of the court (where baseline and doubles sideline meet).
2. Side step along the baseline to the opposite far corner.
3. Run three quarter pace diagonally across the court to the corner of the net. Make an imaginary forehand shot with the racket.
4. Side step along the length if the net to the opposite corner.
5. Turn and run at three quarter pace diagonally across the court back to the start. Make an imaginary backhand shot.
Continue this sequence for 60 seconds then rest for 60 seconds. Perform a total of 5 runs to complete 1 set. Rest for 3 minutes and repeat for 2-3 sets.
The purpose of this station is to improve my agility, as well as learning my way around the court. It is specific to a game of tennis because these movements are always required.
Tennis circuit training
GROUNDSTROKES:
- The feeder stands in the middle of one end of the court with a bucket of balls. There is a sectioned off area with use of cones on the right hand side.
- The performer starts on the right hand side of the opposite end of the court at the base line, in front of one cone placed inside the tramline.
- The performer runs to the other side of the court where there is another cone directly opposite the first one.
- The feeder then throws the ball in between the two cones and the performer must hit a groundstroke into the sectioned off area.
- The performer must touch the cone before hitting the next ball, always left to right and hit either a backhand or forehand stroke-whichever is appropriate.
This practises hitting the ball on the move (although you should technically not be on the move as good footwork enables you to get there in time to position yourself correctly, which is what this exercise enables you to learn).
APPROACH SHOT
- Performer stands next to feeder at the service box.
- Feeder throws the ball high to the opposite side to which the performer is standing on.
- The performer runs round the back and hits and approach shot. (if the player is right-handed and runs around from right to left, then the player must hit a backhand, and vice versa for a forehand.)
VOLLEY
- Two feeders at the net on either side of the court.
- The performer runs forward from the base line where they do a forehand volley from one feeder, followed by sidestep to do a backhand volley from the other feeder.
SMASH
- The feeder stand in the centre of the court on one side.
- The performer runs in from the baseline and touches the net
- The performer then runs backwards to get into position to do a smash into the sectioned off area, fed by the feeder.
SPEND 2 MINUTES ON EACH STATION, WITH A 30 SECOND REST BETWEEN EACH. REPEAT THE CIRCUIT, BUT KEEP ALTERNATING BACKHAND AND FOREHAND ON EACH STATION.
Tennis volley and smash circuit
EXERCISE A
- A feeder throws ten forehand volleys followed by ten backhand volleys to the performer to receive.
The specific different volleys can be practised, and the feeder can aim the ball more accurately if they throw it.
EXERCISE B
- Section off the left and right corners of the feeder’s court with cones.
- The performer is fed the ball, alternating backhand and forehand volleys.
- A backhand must be aimed into the right hand corner, and a forehand must be aimed into the left hand corner.
This enables me to practise winning points, as volleys should be long in the court.
EXERCISE C
- Play a game just inside one service box.
- Points can only be won on a volley, and a non-volley loses a point. Play up to 10 points.
This encourages the use of volleys and so can be rhythmically practised under pressure, as in a game situation.
EXERCISE D
- Hit a ground stroke from the base line, run to the net touch it with your racket and the feeder hits a high ball, where you run slowly backwards to the correct position on the court and hit a smash. Repeat the exercise 8 times.
This is very realistic to what would happen in a game. Once you return a shot, it is a good idea to run to the net as this is very defensive, the opposition may respond by lobbing you, in which you can run backwards and hit a smash.
I have designed the exercises to encourage me to go to the net, as this is where I am hesitant to go because I am not confident with my volleys. Confidence should improve by the end of the training programme, and I should be more willing to go to the net to hit volleys.
SPEND TEN MINUTES ON EXERCISES A-C AND SPEND ROUGHLY 15 MINUTES ON EXERCISE D.
Tennis ground stroke circuit
EXERCISE A
- The left corner is sectioned off on the feeder’s side of the court.
- The feeder hits the ball to my backhand, which then must be returned down the line into the sectioned off cone area. This is repeated for the forehand, which is, hit cross-court into the same coned off area.
- This is repeated about 15 times, and then the sectioned off area is switched to the right hand side of the court, so that backhands are hit cross-court and forehands are hit down the line.
This is a good way of practising hitting shots which are winning points, as they are hard for the opposition to reach.
EXERCISE B
- Both players rally backhands only. Even if the ball bounces on their forehand, the player must move around the ball to hit a backhand.
- Play vice versa with hitting only forehands.
This means that I can practise moving around the ball if for example a back-hand was more appropriate than a forehand. I also means that one specific ground stroke is aimed at any time.
EXERCISE C
- The feeder stands in the middle of one end of the court with a bucket of balls. There is a sectioned off area with use of cones on the right hand side corner.
- The performer starts on the right hand side of the opposite end of the court at the base line, in front of one cone placed inside the tramline.
- The performer runs to the other side of the court where there is another cone directly opposite the first one.
- The feeder then throws the ball in between the two cones and the performer must hit a ground stroke into the sectioned off area.
- The performer must touch the cone before hitting the next ball, always left to right and hit either a backhand or forehand stroke-whichever is appropriate.
SPEND ABOUT 15 MINUTES ON EACH STATION FOLLOWED BY A MATCH
Tennis- Approach shot circuit
EXERCISE A
- Feeder hits the ball where the performer returns a forehand from the base line.
- The performer then runs in towards the net, where the feeder hits the ball in the service box, the performer hits a forehand approach shot.
- Repeat the exercise X 10 then repeat for the backhand.
- To make the exercise more specific to a game situation, corner off the two corners on the feeder’s end of the court. When hitting the forehand approach shot, aim for corner sectioned off which is cross-court.
This means that I can practise getting into the right position from a running start as in a game.
EXERCISE B
- The feeder stands on the performers end of the court just after the service box.
- To hit a backhand approach shot, the performer stands on the left hand side on the feeder, facing the other end of the court.
- The feeder throws the ball to their right, and the performer runs around to hit a backhand approach shot after the ball bounces.
- Change sides to hit a forehand approach shot.
This is another way of practicing moving around the ball, and is especially useful when a shot is hit that can be either a forehand or backhand.
EXERCISE C
- Play points up to 10, where a winning approach shot is worth 3 points and a normal shot is worth one.
This encourages the use of an approach shot in a game rather than a normal groundstroke. An approach shot is an attacking shot and therefore is faster and harder than a ground stroke and more likely to win a point.
Tennis Service circuit
EXERCISE A
- Warm up by hitting 10 serves on both sides, taking a second serve if needed.
This just means that I can find what methods suits me, and what is successful and what is not. I can also practise my slice. Continuous repetition is a good way of learning and improving.
EXERCISE B
- Corner off the bottom corners of both of the service boxes.
- Serve on one side, and aim 10 serves to one corner and 10 serves to the other corner.
- Repeat to the other service box.
This gives an opportunity to aim the ball to where it should bounce-in the end corners of the service box.
The training session-at the gym
It is important to realise that safety is a very important factor when performing and type of exercise, as fault can result in injury. It is especially important to stress the importance of safety in weight training, as a resistance can cause greater damage to my body than no resistance. When judging the range of movement in any given exercise, it is important to look at the movement of the body’s joints and not at the bar, dumbbell, or machine. This is because I could injure myself if the joints and muscles involved in the exercise were stretched to their extreme limits during weight training.
Limits of motion
The muscloskeletal system itself sets up certain anatomic and biomechanical limitations. As well as certain physiological and neurological factors there is a lot of debate about the extent of how much motion should be involved in each exercise.
The bones
Bones have certain sizes, shapes, and protective cartilage that allow for certain movements and restrict others. During exercise, my bones move more easily without resistance. Once a resistance is placed on my body, the narrow spaces between the bones become compressed and may limit their capacity for safe movement. This is particularly true for exercises involving movement at the shoulder joint.
The joints
Since the connective tissues of the joints hold the bones in place as they are articulating or moving, the strength and stability of those joints determine a large degree of the possible range of movement. Like the bones, a joint’s range of motion when moving unresisted may become reduced once the movement becomes loaded. To increase my strength and stability of the joint, I may need to increase the range of motion of the exercise. Previous injuries and the overall condition of the connective tissues, capsule, and surrounding muscles will also affect the joint’s capacity for movement.
The muscles
Muscles themselves can inhibit an exercise’s range of motion in several ways. The most noticeable way is by their flexibility. If a muscle is tight, it will restrict the antagonist movement or the joint motion. The best way to overcome that is by stretching. It is important not to attempt stretching muscles during resisted exercise by using weights to force the muscle to elongate. The muscles will attempt to prohibit the extreme movement and will be at a high risk for injury.
Physiological processes involved in muscular contraction also affect the range of motion. A muscle’s ability to contract is in direct relation to its present length. It is possible to stretch or lengthen certain muscles beyond their capacity to contract actively (via cross-bridging within the contractile units of the muscle fibres). This is termed ‘active insufficiency’. In such instances, the body may call upon other muscles to assist in the movement. This reduces the efficiency of the exercise for the targeted muscle and increases the risk of injury.
The nerves
Since the body relies on nerve impulses from the brain to the muscles for any movement, logically they can also affect the motion of any exercise. Part of the benefit and a large proportion of the strength increases experienced due to resistance training are from developing stronger neuromuscular relationships. This means that we are able to use a larger proportion of the muscle we already have.
As the neuromuscular relationships develop and increase, the ability to control the muscle through a certain range of motion increases.
Fatigue
As you progress through a set of any exercise, you are gradually becoming more tired. The muscles and nerve impulses get weaker with each repetition. This is because there is less glycogen available in the muscles for any energy releasing reactions. Therefore, if all other factors such as positioning of the body, movement speed, and resistance all remain constant, then range of motion should decrease with the onset of fatigue. Each repetition should produce slightly less movement than the previous one, until the set is finished.
(muscle mechanics by Everett Aaberg)
CIRCUIT TRAINING- WEIGHT TRAINING
At the gym, I will be doing the same overall circuit each time I go. However, each week, I will be increasing the intensity, time and the amount of times that I will do the circuit. This is the
circuit intensity for week one, where I will perform the circuit once. The circuit lasts roughly 40 minutes
Warm-up
This will include a five-minute cycle on the cycling machine, followed by stretching (see warm-up). The intensity and duration does not need to be increased, as this is only the warm-up.
Lower body exercises
It is important to increase the strength of the lower body. This is because it is always holding the weight of the upper body. Hamstrings and quadriceps in tennis are important, because they are needed especially when bending the knees for shots which are difficult to get into position, as the quadriceps cause the flexion or bending of the knee the hamstrings relax. Meanwhile, the glucteus maximus is also working as it extends the thigh as in a squat position, the position a tennis player is often in when hitting the ball. Therefore the machine horizontal leg press would subsidise this.
Running is an essential part of tennis, as you will always be running from side to side or forward to back of the court. Therefore the muscles which cause this- the quadriceps which cause the forward action, and the hamstrings which extend the leg behind and flex the knee in running should be trained to increase its efficiency- i.e. increase contractibility of muscle units and so increasing power of the muscles and ultimately speed. Other muscles associated with the actions of running should be trained also. These muscles include the tibialis anterior.
In tennis, you should be constantly on your toes, lightly stepping from foot to foot when waiting for a return in preparation. This requires much endurance from the muscle which cause this, the gastrocnemius which causes plantar flexion of the foot, and also helps the knee flex. Therefore the machine seated calf extension is ideal.
Machine horizontal leg press
TARGET MUSCLES- Gluteus, hamstrings, quadriceps
JOINT MOTION- Hip extension, knee extension
Machine standing hip extension
TARGET MUSCLES- Gluteus maximus, biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus
JOINT MOTION- Hip extension
Machine standing hip flex
TARGET MUSCLES - tensor fasciae latae, rectus femorus and sartorius.
JOINT MOTION- Hip flexion
Machine seated hip adduction
TARGET MUSCLES- Adductor magus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, pectineus, gracilis
JOINT MOTION- Hip adduction
Machine seated hip abduction
TARGET MUSCLES- Tensor fasciae latae, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus
JOINT MOTION- Hip abduction
Machine seated calf extension
TARGET MUSCLES- Gastrocnemius, soleus
JOINT MOTION- Ankle extension (plantar flexion)
Lunges
TARGET MUSCLES- Gluteus, hamstrings, quadriceps
JOINT MOTION- Hip extension, knee extension
Upper body exercises
In a tennis serve or smash, the most important factor is power, as this type of shot should be a winning shot. Therefore the muscles involved should be a contractile as possible to produce this power. The deltoids raise the arm to shoulder level to help the overhead movement with help from the trapezius. Therefore the cable standing lateral row would be suitable. The pectoralis major pull the arm back down for the forward swing and therefore the machine chest press would be ideal.
To increase the strength of the flexors and extensors of the wrist, wrist curls could be done. An increase in strength of these muscles would increase the grip strength meaning the racket will stay in the position it is supposed to be in, and will not accidentally move out of position in the grip. Tricep extensions are also useful because they replicate the action of the serve of smash, and so all muscles needed for the service are being built up and none are being left out.
Cable standing lat row
TARGET MUSCLES- Rhomboids, midtrapezius, latissimus dorsi, posterior deltoid, biceps group
JOINT MOTION- Scapula retraction, shoulder extension, elbow flexion
Rowing machine
TARGET MUSCLES- Posterior deltoid, upper trapezius, midtrapezius, rhomboids, and biceps group.
JOINT MOTION- Shoulder horizontal abduction, scapula retraction, elbow flexion.
Machine chest press
TARGET MUSCLES - Pectoralis major, anterior deltoid, triceps.
JOINT MOTION- Horizontal adduction, elbow extension
Dumbbell Triceps Extensions
TARGET MUSCLES-Triceps group, anconeus
JOINT MOTION- elbow extension
Dumbbell biceps flex
TARGET MUSCLES- Biceps brachii, brachialis, brachiorardialis
JOINT MOTION- Elbow flexion
Dumbbell side delt abduction
TARGET MUSCLES- Middle deltoid, anterior deltoid, supraspinatus
JOINT MOTION- shoulder abduction
Trunk exercises- To improve the strength and flexibility of the trunk
Trunk rotation
TARGET MUSCLES- external obliques
JOINT MOTION- Trunk flexion
Abdominal crunches
TARGET MUSCLES- Rectus abdominus
JOINT MOTION- Trunk flexion
Resista-ball reverse trunk flex
TARGET MUSCLES- Rectus abdominis
JOINT MOTION- Trunk flexion
To meet the demands of tennis, it is important to train all aspects of fitness, and throughout my training programme, I will constantly be working on all areas as they play an important part in successful tennis. However, one of my main aims is to improve my cardio-vascular endurance, and ultimately improve my stamina. This is because tennis matches can be long and tiring, and so it is important to sustain as much power in all your shots as possible and to be able to be constantly moving with consistency i.e. never slowing down the pace.
The skill that I am focusing on is the serve. This is because it is one of the most commonly used skills in tennis, and is therefore important to develop it to its full potential. It is also a skill that I need to particularly improve and in a game situation I will find gaining points easier if I win on my serve.
It is important to find out which specific muscles are needed for the serve. Therefore each individual subroutine must be established.
GRIP- A tight grip is important, as it means more force can be applied from the upper arm to hit the ball. Therefore it is important that the wrist extensors and flexors are trained.
BACKSWING- The further back the arm can swing, the more force can be applied to the ball in the forward wing. Therefore it is important to train the shoulder joint to be as flexible as possible.
FORWARD SWING- This must be quick with lots of force, and therefore the muscles involved should be trained to exert lots of power. The pectoralis major pulls the arm forwards and inwards ready to hit the ball. The biceps and triceps provide the partial flexion of the elbow when actually hitting the ball. In the follow through, the elbow is more fully flexed, and at the beginning of the shot the arm is fully extended.
Trunk flexibility is also important because in tennis, the body is required to change direction quickly when approached with any kind of shot. Therefore training of the external obliques, rectus abdominus and erector spinae should be performed
The best predictor of serve velocity of all is 'elbow extension torque', i.e. the ability of the triceps muscles in the serving arm to exert power. Also very important is the strength of internal rotation of the shoulder (the power exerted when the arm is rotated inwards towards the body)--and especially the ratio between shoulder internal-rotation and external- rotation strength.
Wrist flexibility is also critical (the more flexible the wrist, the higher the ball velocity). Flexible wrists appear to provide more 'snap' to the tennis racket just before ball impact and therefore boost velocity. Therefore it is important to practice specific exercises to improve specific targeted muscles. Shoulder flexibility is also essential for rapid serving. Those players with excellent flexibility of the shoulder when the arm moved straight ahead--or when the arm rotated inward--are likely to have much stronger serves than individuals with tight shoulders. Therefore wrist and shoulder flexibility must be improved. Springing into my serve also provides more force behind the swing. Therefore it is important to bend my knees and get low. Then spring up into the serve. Plyometrics would provide a way to improve this.
Week 1- performed once per week
Week 2 – performed twice per week
Week 3 - performed twice per week
Week 4 - performed three times per week
Week 5 and 6 performed three times per week
The plan for the gym is progressive because I have increased the intensity and frequency every two weeks. It is also overloading as after two weeks I should hopefully find the exercises easier to perform, and therefore increase the intensity and frequency to carry on overloading, so that my body will adapt to the increased demand placed upon it.
1If your training goal is speed strength or maximal strength then the TUT (Total duration of the set) should not exceed 20 seconds. The general advice given by coaches and instructors across the industry is to lower the weight under control and accelerate the weight back up.
Cycling
I will also include cycling in my training programme. As well as improving my cardiovascular system, it builds up strength endurance in the legs. Increasing the gears, or cycling up hills can change the intensity. The steeper the hill, the harder the muscles will have to work. It will also improve my grip strength,
as I will be contracting the forearm muscles continuously in order to hold onto the bike.
Yoga
I will be introducing yoga into my training programme. Yoga can improve balance and coordination, as well as improving flexibility and strengthening the body. Because I am not very familiar with yoga, I have planned a session for week one, and will increase the intensity, frequency and duration as I go along.
Warm-up
- Lie on your back, with your legs held to your chest. Rock from side to side.
- Still holding one leg, extend the other leg so that the heel is touching the floor. Hold the position for as long as it feels comfortable.
- Then straighten the held leg so that it is pointing towards the ceiling. Pull the straightened leg towards your head to where is comfortable and hold the position.
- Then swap legs.
1. Dynamic standing forward bend
- Stand tall and relaxed, with feet hip width apart and arms hanging by your sides, with palms facing backwards.
- Inhale slowly and deeply while raising your arms forward and up overhead.
- As you exhale, bend forwards slowly, and when you feel a pull in the back of your legs, bend your legs and arms slightly. Continue bending until your head is close to knee level.
- As you inhale again, roll your upper body up slowly, ‘stacking’ the bones of your spine on top of each other, one by one, from bottom to top, until you reach an erect position.
- Raise your arms overhead, stretching to touch an imaginary object placed above you.
- Release your arms back to your sides and repeat the whole movement eight times.
This exercise will increase the flexibility of the hips. This is important in tennis for shots which are out of reach, where outstretching your racket, and leaning towards the shot will cause some flexion of the hips.
2. The bridges of Madison country
- Lie on your back with your knees bent and your feet flat on the floor, hip width apart and your arms at your sides, with palms turned down.
- As you inhale, raise your hips to a comfortable height, returning them to the floor as you exhale.
- Repeat the exercise 10 times.
This exercise will increase the strength of the lower back, needed to keep the spine erect, which is important for good posture, and therefore if I have good posture I am more likely to hit a shot in the correct body position, causing a more successful outcome.
3. Trunk rotation
- Lie on your back with your knees held to your chest.
- Keeping both legs together and in the same position, push them to the left side so that the lateral side of your left leg is touching the floor, and your right leg is resting on top, still bent.
- Stretch your arms so they are lying flat on the floor and are in line with your shoulders.
- Turn you head so that you are looking at your right arm.
- Hold the position for as long as it is comfortable, and repeat but changing sides. Repeat the whole process eight times.
This exercise will increase the flexibility of the trunk. Trunk flexibility is important because in tennis, the body is required to change direction quickly when approached with any kind of shot. This exercise stretches the external obliques and rectus abdominus.
4. Opening up the shoulders
- I sit on my heels, so that my knees are resting on the floor.
- I place my hands behind each foot, with arms straight, and place palm down with fingers pointing away from the body.
- Push my chest out and hold the position for as long as is comfortable.
This exercise opens my shoulders, and so increases the extensibility of the shoulders. It stretches the pectoralis major, meaning I will be able to bring my arm back further for a forehand shot for example. If I bring the arm back further, then there is more force behind the shot.
5. Sun exercise technique
Yoga shall be performed:
Once a week for weeks 1-3
Twice a week for weeks 4-6
This should be enough to substantially improve my flexibility.
Tennis shall be performed:
This means that every skill on the syllabus is covered, and there is also a footwork session, i.e. knowing how to move around the court to get to the ball in time.
Before every session is ten minutes of either cross court or down the line rallying. A match is played at the end of each session. It is important to include matches at the end of the session, so that I can put what I have just been learning, or practising into a game situation. It also gives me a chance to practise all of the other skill which I have not practised. For example if I did not play matches, I would not be able to practise my service until week 6.
I have arranged the schedule so that each week I am concentrating on a different skill. Therefore I have time to perfect it as much as possible, without moving onto a next skill if I am not ready.
At the moment, I play tennis once a week, where I do not focus on any particular skill, but rally to warm up followed by playing matches where I spend roughly an hour on court. I also go to the gym once a week, where my load is the same as week one, so I already have my starting point. I occasionally swim after going to the gym, so I have decided to swim once a week after one gym session. Any more, and I would be at risk of over training. I also play badminton for one hour a week.
As the aim of this training programme is largely to improve my game of tennis, I have decided to introduce skill specific tennis sessions and play more often. I will also be doing yoga, so as to improve my flexibility.
Monday
Gym session
This session lasted about forty minutes. I performed the session in the order as in the plan. This meant that I had more energy at the beginning of the session, and had little energy left for the treadmill. Because I have already done this programme every week, I know what my capabilities are, and so I was able to complete the circuit.
I found that the rowing machine was not beneficial, as I did not overload myself enough, considering the exercise lasted only 2 minutes. I was not particularly tired and did not really develop a sweat. To gain something from the rowing machine for next week, I need to decide whether to increase the distance travelled (I was not rowing very fast and so the distance covered was less than if I had been rowing faster) or to increase the intensity and duration. I could feel that the intensity was not strong enough even if I had increased the pace, but I may not be able to withstand a faster pace if the duration was increased. Therefore next week I will increase intensity to 8 and increase my pace so that I travel ? paces at a minimum considering I only managed ? paces today. Duration will be kept the same.
For both the machine-seated hip abduction and the machine seated hip adduction, the intensity was too low, as I found that I was able to perform the exercises quickly and with ease. Therefore, I shall increase the intensity to ?
I found that it is a good idea to gradually decrease the pace of the treadmill after the set time was up. This meant that I could begin a proper cool-down, as I could get rid of any lactic acid build up, in preparation for stretches, which improve my flexibility and also decrease the risk of aching muscles the next day.
Tuesday- Rest day
My muscles were actually hurting and ached a bit. This means that I did not do a proper cool-down and must take extra care for next time to jog and stretch.
Wednesday
Yoga
I completed the plan that was set, and the session lasted about forty minutes. However, because the sun exercise technique is particularly effective and really does re-energise you, I performed this in the morning as well. At the moment I am comfortable with the amount of repetitions that I am doing for each yoga exercise and will carry on with the amount set for next time. The sun exercise technique however is an all round conditioning workout, and therefore although intensity cannot be increased, I will increase the frequency and repeat the technique four times instead of twice, this in turn increases the duration.
After the yoga session, I did twenty wrist curls with the dumbbell on each wrist. This not only increase flexibility, but also the strength of the forearms is increased. Therefore I have decided to do wrist curls after every yoga session, as they can both be done at home.
I also played an hour of badminton. This gave me another chance to practice smashes in particular, as the body alignment is the same as for tennis smashes.
Thursday
Rest day
Friday
Tennis
The session lasted just over and hour. I spent the first ten minutes rallying to warm up, where it started with a cross-court rally.
I then used the tennis interval training cross-drill. As I had not played tennis for a while, this was a good way of getting me familiar with the various shots. I played 3 games at the end of the session, and felt that my backhand needed a lot of work as I was not hitting the ball early enough, and the shot was very loopy. This is because the racket was too open, therefore for my next tennis session, instead of having a cross-drill circuit, I will do my ground stroke session. I was very pleased with the tennis session as the cross drill session meant I could practise all my skills, and also made the session more interesting and so increased motivation.
Saturday
Rest day
Sunday
I had no physical activity planned for today, so I performed the yoga session. I cannot yet feel any improvement in my flexibility, but I generally feel more relaxed
This week the only training method that I used was circuit training, as the session at the gym was in a circuit of various exercises, as was the tennis session. Inside each circuit, different methods were being used. In the tennis circuit, intermittent training was being used, as there was short periods of intense activity with breaks in between each station. It is important to train both my aerobic and anaerobic systems as well as improving my agility, and therefore next week I will also be including a fartlek training session:
Jog for 5 minutes (aerobic)
Fast run with sprinting for 10 secs every minute (anaerobic)
Fast walk for 2 minutes (aerobic)
Even run with 10 fast strides every 30 seconds (aerobic & anaerobic)
Fast skipping (anaerobic)
The session is repeated until roughly 45 minutes is up.
I already have some continuous training, as I run on the treadmill, however, continuous training should last at least twenty minutes. Therefore I am going to decrease the intensity of the treadmill to 6.2 and increase the duration to fifteen minutes, and eventually increase both the duration and intensity. Depending on how the session goes, I may have to run first so that I have more energy at the gym sessions.
Monday
Gym session
I ran fifteen minutes on the treadmill at level 6.2. This is a very slow run. I found I could run this more easily running at the end of the session, even though the duration had increased since last time. I will run fifteen minutes for my next session also. Intensity and duration for all the other activities will not yet be increased as I am overloading enough, any more increase and I may be risk of injury. I am building up my muscular endurance, I need to concentrate on increasing the duration rather than the intensity. Therefore I will increase the frequency by increasing the length of each set for next week. The session lasted about an hour and a half.
Swimming Session
In order to improve should flexibility, I swam using three different strokes:
3 lengths Breaststroke
3 lengths backstroke
3 lengths Front crawl
I find swimming beneficial because it improves my cardiovascular system as well as the flexibility of my shoulders and hip joints.
Tuesday
Tennis Session
For this session I concentrated on my ground strokes. Both exercises A and B were successful, and helped me practise aiming the ball rather than just hitting it. Exercise C however was not successful, as it was difficult to aim the ball in the correct place without a proper coach. Instead of doing this I just did exercises A and B again as theses were very helpful followed by matches, in which I began to concentrate more on tactics-such as aiming the ball at specific areas rather than technique, as my technique is fine. I know this because my shots are fairly consistent, and are low to the net. However for the next session, I will concentrate on putting topspin on the ball so it is harder for the opponent to hit, as it is faster. The whole session lasted about forty minutes.
Yoga Session
As I have been stretching after every form of exercise that I do, I have found it increasingly easier to perform yoga as my range of motion has increased already. I can nearly touch my toes, as the hip joint was one of my most inflexible places. The sun exercise technique was repeated five times instead of four.
Wrist curls
I find these relatively easy to do, and because intensity cannot be increased, I have increased the number of repetitions to 30 instead of fifteen.
Wednesday
One hour of badminton, where I spent most of it practising smashes, in order to help with my tennis smashes.
Thursday
Fartlek training session
The session lasted about 25 minutes, as I was too tired to do the full 45 minutes. Therefore next time, in order for the session to last longer, I need to have more rest periods. So after each anaerobic exercise, I will have a one-minute walking period. The even run with 10 fast strides every 30 seconds and the fast run with sprinting for 10 seconds every minute was not sport specific, as I would never have to sprint this far in a game situation. Therefore instead, next time I will do:
- Jog for 5 minutes (aerobic)
- Fast run with sprinting for 3 minutes taking 3 long strides every 10 seconds (anaerobic)
- Fast walk for 2 minutes (aerobic)
- Sprint & change direction* (aerobic & anaerobic)
- Fast skipping (anaerobic)
*Sprint roughly the length of one side of a court and run in another direction- always facing forward. If I decided to go right, I would side step, if running behind, then I would run backwards. Do this for two minutes.
This is a good way to practice direction changing on the move, therefore improving agility as well as training the anaerobic system.
Friday
Tennis session
I performed the ground stroke circuit but only exercises A and B. I then rallied with a partner, where in turn one of us served and the other could practise their return by having two-target areas- the bottom corners of the court, which were sectioned off by cones. This was a good exercise as it was relevant to a game situation and meant that I could practise hitting a winning return. I was only successful in a winning return roughly 50% of the time.
Saturday & Sunday – Exhausted, no exercise
Although I had planned a gym session over the weekend, I felt fatigued and could not do any workout. My muscles were hurting, and therefore I think I have over trained this week. Although I am due to do two gym sessions next week, I will plan only to one during the week, and if I am not exhausted, I will go to the gym a second time at the weekend.
Monday
Gym session
After recovering from last week, I went to the gym. This week I still felt no real improvement, which is reasonable considering over the training programme so far I have only had three sessions. Therefore I will keep the intensity the same for this week, and possibly increase the frequency of how many times I have a gym session next week to twice. However, I did not feel as tired after the session. I also did some stretching after the session, and am finding I have to stretch further in order to reach the ‘uncomfortable’ zone. This means that flexibility is improving.
Swimming session
As I was less tired this week from the gym session, I managed to swim four extra lengths:
3 lengths backstroke
5 lengths breaststroke
3 front lengths crawl
I swam more breaststroke lengths because breaststroke not only increases flexibility of the shoulder joint, but also of the hip joint. All three strokes are beneficial to tennis because they all increase flexibility as well as coordination. It also provides a way to increase the muscular endurance of particularly the arms, as they are constantly moving, as in a tennis match where you are required to be constantly hitting the ball.
Tuesday
Tennis Session
This week I am concentrating on the volley. I did the volley and smash session. This a particularly enjoyable session because there was a variety in exercises as there were four instead of the usual three, and also there were two skills to practice. Although I need more practice on smashes, my volley is still very weak, and I will still have a volley to smash ratio exercise of 3:1. Volleys are more common in a game and therefore are more important to perfect it. Also the action of the serve is similar to the smash, and so I will always be performing my smash. When I was designing the session, I put the smash together with the volley. This was because they were similar in that the ball shouldn’t bounce before the shot is hit, and it is usually hit close to the net. Therefore the session worked quite well as I was getting used to staying at the front of the net, where I am usually hesitant to go because my ground strokes are stronger.
Yoga session
For this session, I slowed down the exercises, and held the positions of the exercises 2-5 for about thirty seconds rather than the usual fifteen. I can touch my toes with my legs straight, although there is a bit of a strain on the back of my legs. I did the sit and reach test and found that I had improved by 4cm, as my score is now
Wrist curls
I did the same amount as last time, X 30 per wrist.
Wednesday
Rest day
Thursday
Fartlek training
I spent 30 minutes on this session, followed by a fifteen-minute session on footwork, which consisted of:
- 10 cones in a straight line about a foots length apart, vertically and in front of me.
- Run down the line of cones, doing two steps in between each cone.
- Do a split step, pretend to hit a ground stroke and run backwards over the cones with two steps between each cone.
Exercise A from the cross drill session.
I needed to improve my agility, and the way I move around the court, in order to reach balls in time in a game situation, and to get into the correct position. Therefore I thought a short footwork session would aid this. The ten cones were roughly the length of a service box, and so is relevant to a game of tennis.
Friday
Gym session
There was different equipment available and a limited amount of time available. Therefore the session consisted of:
A ten-minute jog, which I found more motivating than the treadmill as it was outside. However, because it was outside, I found it more difficult as it was so cold and there were different terrains therefore I had to run slower with a few stops in between.
Rowing machine, 4 minutes- This was less difficult as the intensity could not be changed, but only the duration could be increased. I rowed as far as I could to the nearest minute.
Machine Chest press- I did the same amount as normal.
Bicep curls- I performed twenty on each arm
Tricep extensions-These were quite difficult to do as they felt heavy meaning the technique could not be done properly and so I did only 10. This is a good exercise to do as it replicates the action of the serve.
The session was much shorter than usual and the equipment was different meaning the loads were not the same and I could only guess what weights to use.
Saturday
Tennis session
I concentrated on the volley again. To begin with, I found it difficult to aim the ball into the sectioned off areas. This was because my volley was weak. However now I found it fairly easy to get the ball in. I have also started to come into the net more frequently in matches at the end of the tennis session, as I am more confident with the volley. Although it does not always go into the appropriate areas due to pressure. On occasions, the racket has been to open, causing a loopy shot which is out of court. This is because I had not got into the correct position quickly enough, and so was hitting the ball to the side, of me rather than in front of me. This will improve with practice as I know now that I am capable of a good volley, therefore it is a good idea to continue with matches at the end of each session.
Sunday
Rest day
Monday
From the results it can be seen that I have improved in the multi stage fitness test. This is partly because I was more highly motivated the second time I performed the test. Therefore I was more willing to run despite factors such as fatigue and boredom. I had more determination as I had a set target to aim for whereas I did no really have anything to aim for the first time. I think that it was my training programme which had the biggest impact on the improvement. In my training programme, I was training my cardio-vascular endurance through mostly continuous running. I used progressive overload in order to improve the endurance of my cardio-vascular system. My VO2 max increased from about 35cm3 to 41.8cm3. Following this endurance training, there were many cardiovascular adaptations which lead to the improvement of the cardiovascular system. There were large increases of VO2 max, due to the aerobic adaptations of the heart on the lungs. This was because following training is the increased capillarisation of trained muscles. New capillaries developed, enabling more blood to flow to the muscles. This means there is a more efficient oxygen supply, needed for cells in muscles to respire in order to get the energy to contract. Existing capillaries have become more efficient and allow greater amounts of blood to reach cells in muscles, which also become more efficient at extracting the oxygen due to muscular adaptations.
There is a greater supply of oxygen for energy production in the working muscles due to improvements in the vasculature efficiency to vasoconstrict and vasodilate which improve the redistribution of blood by shunting the supply to the active muscles. This also means respiring muscles can get rid of fatigue causing by-products like lactic acid more easily, and therefore will not tire as quickly. There is also an increase in blood volume and therefore an increase in the number of red blood cells. However the plasma volume increases more than the blood viscosity decreases. This facilitates blood flow through the blood vessels, and improves oxygen delivery to the working muscles.
For the muscular system
Skeletal muscle has two types of muscle fibre: slow twitch and fast twitch. The proportion of each type in your muscle is inherited, however much training and exercise can change these proportions. Slow twitch fibres are designed for long periods of low intensity work, and are the type which endurance athlete’s benefit. Fast twitch fibres generate extremely high force but fatigue easily. A marathon runner may have done so much training that they may have as much as 80% slow twitch fibres, and therefore will have almost lost all their speed. In tennis it is important to have a both fast twitch and slow twitch fibres.
As a result of strength training, muscles will experience hypertrophy. This will mean the muscles become larger and thicker, and can exert more force. Largely due to the increase in size and volume of the myofibrils, which provide the contractile unit of the muscle. Myofibrils are contained within a single fasciculus, which many bundles of fasciculi compose the muscle. The myofibrils represent a sarcomere, a highly organised structure, and are composed of two protein-based myofilaments:
- A thick myosin filament, and
- A thinner actin filament
Which, a result of training, will strengthen and become tougher.
This is very useful in tennis, as more power behind a shot makes the hit faster so and harder to return. From my training programme, I have experienced some muscle hypertrophy, but not much. This can be shown from the result of the grip dynameter test. Because the improvement is so small, it is debateable whether the improvement was due to motivation or actual muscle hypertrophy. I think that it was as a result of the training that my forearm muscles strength increased. This is because I am finding shots such as volley easier with improved outcomes. A volley needs a firm grip in order provide power, as well as the wrist staying static (since the movement is a push) which means strong forearms are important. However it is also debateable whether the volley is more successful due to the amount of practice I have had. I feel it is a mixture of both, but dominantly the increased volley practice, causing me to be able to recollect how to respond to a variety of situations which occur. Volley practice will also have increased my forearm strength anyway, but training at the gym has helped.
Nervous system
It is likely that the training programme resulted in a more coordinated movement. This is because the more frequent that the exercise occurs, the more your body adapts to it. This reduces the inhibition of the neural pathways, resulting in a more coordinated movement. There is an increased economy of movement. This is where the movement is fluent, and the athlete performs the movement with ease, as well as improved skill acquisition. Therefore, because I continuously practised tennis, and familiarised myself with various skills and situations, my game of tennis improved. My service improved dramatically, despite the training programme to be only six weeks long. This is because regular practice of the serve meant that I could recognise which methods would bring about a good serve, and the
There are also adaptations to the heart. However these are most likely to be as a result of long-term training.
Effects of long term training
For the heart
Long-term training improves the overall efficiency of the heart. Therefore, I could can still be improving as my training programme was short term. It is important to understand the heart’s functions, to realise the effects of training on the heart.
The heart’s main function is to pump blood around the body. The blood’s functions are fundamental to life itself and include; the transportation of nutrients, protection and the maintenance of homeostasis.
Cardiac output is the amount of blood that is pumped out of the heart from one ventricle per minute, generally measured from the left ventricle. The cardiac output does not change with training, and so a trained athlete would compensate for a lower resting heart rate by increasing the stroke volume. However, this is a long term effect of training, as my resting heart rate is exactly the same as when I started- 72bpm. Stroke volume is the amount of blood ejected into the aorta in one beat. Heart rate reflects the number of times the heart beats per minute. Cardiac output is equal to the product of stroke volume and heart rate.
Cardiac Output = stroke volume X heart rate
Cardiac Hypertrophy
Trained athletes will often experience enlargement of the heart, this is known as cardiac hypertrophy. This is not likely to happen during my six-week training programme, as cardiac hypertrophy results from long-term training. The heart becomes stronger and the myocardium (muscle of the heart) contractility increases.
Bradycardia
As a result of training, resting heart rate decreases, as well as the heart rate for any given workload. This is known as bradycardia. There is an increase in stroke volume due to the increased size of the ventricular cavity from hypertrophy of the heart. The cardiac muscle has been strengthened due to training. This means that the heart does not have to beat as often, as the ventricles can more completely fill up with blood.
Recovery time decreases
As a result of endurance training, the time it takes for your heart to return to its original resting heart rate decreases. This is because your body adapts to the increased demand placed upon it, and in time your heart adapts by becoming bigger so that it has to beat less, and therefore recovery time decreases.
If I carried on training intensely for six months to three years I could achieve all of the mentioned factors, in order to improve my game of tennis.
For the skeletal system
Skeletal tissues become stronger as exercise adds stress upon the bones, which encourages the laying down of bony plates and the deposition of calcium salts along the lines of stress. This reinforces the criss-cross matrix and improves the tensile stress of the bone. The criss-cross matrix is the cancellous bone, and is constantly reorganised in response to new alterations of stress. It combines strength with the minimum of weight so that bones can be easily moved but can take much stress.
Hyaline cartilage is a resilient tissue found on articulating surfaces of bones. It protects the bone from wear and reduces friction between the articulating bones. It thickens as a result of exercise, increasing the amount of protection.
Tendons, which join muscles to the bone, thicken thus are able to withstand greater muscle force. A greater extensibility and elasticity of the muscle fibres from exercise leads to a greater range of movement and so increased flexibility.