Fitness requirements for three sports
There are different definitions of fitness actually means, but one common way it is described is as the 5 S's
Speed
Strength
Stamina
Suppleness
Skill
Two other S's sometimes associated with describing fitness are
Specificity (what do you need to fit for)
Spirit (psychological aspect)
One key element is specifity, in that what you want to be fit for, determines which of these S's has the most weight or importance. For example, a golfer would not need much speed but would need a lot of skill.
A 100m sprinter needs speed, strength, but not much stamina, a gymnast needs strength, skill, suppleness and stamina. However this stamina is different from the type of stamina that an endurance runner needs.
Boxing
Physiological Characteristics of Boxing:
Boxing is a sport of intermittent nature, characterized by short duration, high intensity bursts of activity. It requires significant anaerobic fitness, and operates within a well-developed aerobic system. Boxing is estimated to be 70-80% anaerobic and 20-30% aerobic.
Boxing has a work/rest ratio is approximately 3:1. The nature of boxing requires athletes to sustain power at a high percentage of V02 max (often above lactate threshold, producing high levels of blood lactate leading to premature fatigue). The primary aims of conditioning for boxing are to delay the onset of fatigue by increasing tolerance to lactic acid build-up, to increase stores of phospho-creatine to produce ATP, to delay the pre-mature use of the lactic acid system, to improve efficiency of oxygen use, and to improve recovery between intense bursts of activity.
Energy Systems:
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the source of energy for all muscle contractions. When ATP is broken down into ADP (adenosine diphosphate), energy is released. Maintaining the availability of ATP is the limiting performance factor, as ATP is not stored in large amounts. Exercise and sport are fuelled by three different energy systems that produce ATP; the aerobic system, the lactic acid system (anaerobic glycolysis) and the ATP-PC system. The aerobic pathway is a long-term energy system, while the two anaerobic pathways (lactic acid and ATP-PC) are short term. These 3 pathways however do not act independent of each other, as all activities lie on a spectrum with no distinct boundaries.
Aerobic System:
Aerobic glycolysis occurs when oxygen is readily available to break down pyruvate into ATP. This is a complex process with three primary stages.
1. Glycolysis, the breakdown of glucose (or fat) takes place over 9 steps
2. The Krebs cycle
3. The Electron Transfer Chain
The aim of aerobic training is to improve the working capacity of the heart and its ability to deliver oxygen to the muscles. There are 2 main ways to train this system:
1. Long duration interval running
2. Long distance (low intensity) steady state running
Studies have found continuous training as the optimal way to improve oxygen delivery, while interval training increases oxygen utilisation and lactate threshold. With interval training, there is the ability to perform large amounts of high intensity work in shorter time. This type of training can also be manipulated to alter which metabolic pathway is emphasized, longer intervals involve more aerobic pathways, and shorter intervals involve more anaerobic pathways.
With long distance training the aim is to run longer than the event lasts in an attempt to overload the system.
General methods of developing aerobic endurance:
1. Steady-state continuous runs: 5-10km (about 70-80% V02 max)
2. Long duration interval training: 4-6 sets of 2-5 minute intervals (work/rest ratio of 1:1 or 1:2)
3. Short duration interval training: 10 sets of 400m (work/rest ratio of 1:1 or 1:2)
4. Shorter duration interval training: 20 sets of 200m (work/rest ratio of 1:1 or 1:2)
at high levels of activity, the aerobic system cannot supply enough oxygen to fuel the exercise, forcing the athlete to work in oxygen debt. When activity is performed without the use of oxygen, it is fuelled by the anaerobic pathways.
Lactic Acid System:
This is defined as "the incomplete breakdown of glycogen in the absence of oxygen". This occurs during periods of activity lasting approximately 90 seconds, but ranges from 15 secs to 2 minutes. This pathway begins the same as the aerobic pathway, except the breakdown of glucose into pyruvic acid occurs in the absence of oxygen, and is converted to lactic acid.
Lactate is produced and transforms to lactic acid from pyruvate. This dissociates into lactate and hydrogen ions, causing an increase in muscle acidity leading to muscular fatigue. The removal of this lactic acid is slow and requires nearly 15-20 minutes removing half of the concentration formed.
ATP-PC System:
This system uses creatine phosphate to generate intense bursts of activity, lasting 10-15 seconds in duration. This system has the ability to completely replenish stores after depletion (within a period of 2-3 minutes rest). A drop in ATP promotes a reaction between phospho-creatine molecules and ADP, resulting in the immediate production of ATP without the use of oxygen or production of lactic acid. During recovery when sufficient amounts of ATP can be produced aerobically, excess ATP is converted back to phospho-creatine.
The aim of this type of training is to develop the athlete’s tolerance to muscular fatigue (due to increases in metabolic buffers and larger stores of phospho-creatine). Training the lactic acid system involves a special form of interval training that maximally stresses the metabolic pathway at intensities of 85-100% V02 max. It is performed with intervals of 15-40 seconds as well as intervals of 40-90 seconds. Recovery periods are long, as the lactic acid formed leads to fatigue. This training is physically hard and can drastically reduce glycogen stores.
1. 5-8 sets of 300m (work/rest ratio of 1:10)
2. 10-15 sets of 150m (work/rest ratio of 1:10)
3. 6-8 sets of 45 -120 second intervals.
To improve the ATP-PC system, you must train with high intensity short-term efforts at 100+% V02 max. Intense intervals often range from 5 -10 seconds. Reps and sets depend on the athlete’s fitness. Lactic acid production is minimal which allows for brief recovery periods.
- 3 sets of 10x30m sprints (work/rest ratio of 1:4, plus 5 minutes recovery per set)
2. 15 sets of 60m sprints (work/rest ratio of 1:4)
3. 20 sets of 20m sprints (work/rest ratio of 1:4)
Specific Conditioning:
A boxing training program should place great emphasis on the anaerobic pathways. The most specific way to condition for boxing is a form of interval running that mimics the work/rest ratios involved, intervals matching the duration of a round (2 or 3 minutes), with a 1 minute rest period. Intervals of this nature train the anaerobic lactic acid system, while also providing aerobic benefits.
Another effective way to train the lactic acid system for boxing is to perform situational exercises, lasting 30-60 seconds for 6-8 sets, while sparring. For example one athlete could constantly attack for 60 seconds while the other defends, or alternatively, if training alone you could throw continuous combinations against a bag.
By training the lactic acid system, the athlete delays the onset of fatigue by increasing tolerance to lactic acid build-up.
While the lactic acid system is most important to boxing, training the ATP-PC system also has benefits, such as increasing the body’s stores of phospho-creatine and delaying the pre-mature use of the lactic acid system. Training this system requires shorter interval periods. To increase the specificity to boxing, you could again use situational drills. A sample routine could consist of 10-15 sets lasting 6-10 seconds.
Although the emphasis of training should be on developing the anaerobic energy systems, it is important recognize the importance of steady state running, and longer interval training. The aim of endurance training is to improve the efficiency of oxygen use and aid the recovery between intense bursts of anaerobic activity. The main application for boxing is to permit greater recovery from anaerobic work (via lactate metabolism and removal of waste products), which is crucial between rounds.
Additional benefits of aerobic training include:
1. Sustained activities lasting over 2 minutes have a higher aerobic content. Although primarily anaerobic, a 3-minute round still requires contribution from the aerobic system.
2. Activities lie on a spectrum with no distinct boundaries. Even in short term activities, of 20 seconds or less, there is a contribution from the aerobic system.
3. Fat can only be utilised by the use of oxygen, so when making weight, aerobic training is an important tool.
4. An aerobic fitness base aids recovery between intense bursts of activity.
5. Aerobic training leads to improvements in lactate threshold - point at which lactate production exceeds lactate removal
In addition to general endurance training, sport specific aerobic training could involve performing longer rounds (5-6 minutes) at reduced intensities using the rest period of 1:2.
Football
Team sports like football make it even harder to determine what areas of fitness are required. The types required will depend upon positions and role in the team, but one key area is skill and specifity. Football players should be soccer players first and athletes second. This doesn't mean that their athletic areas of fitness, speed, strength, stamina etc. are not important, because they are, but skill and specifity and perhaps spirit are the most important.
Having said that, a very skilful player who cannot last the whole match due to lack of stamina, or cannot get to the ball due to lack of speed, is not as useful to the team as the player who has slightly less skill, but more speed and stamina.
Football fitness
Football players need a combination of aerobic and anaerobic fitness due to the nature of the game and the fact that there is continuous movement with lots of short bursts of more intense activity. Some positions require higher levels of anaerobic fitness than others, some require more aerobic fitness. A midfield player is required to cover a lot of ground during a game and needs a good aerobic engine. A striker on the other hand requires short bursts of repeated activity and requires more speed and anaerobic fitness.
One key aspect of fitness is that each player is different and has different training requirements dependant upon their inherent physical abilities, their desire to train, age and position played. Football is a team sport and as such, players train together as a team. This is important for many reasons, but it also means that not all conditioning type sessions or activities have equal benefits across all players.
Where time is available to test and analyse results, it is much better if programs can be tailored for each player or group of players with the same requirements. This is important from around the age of 13 and up, when the effects of training have much more of an impact. Conditioning and speed training at 10-13 years has less impact. FA coaching reports suggested that player’s 10-12 benefit from training in that it prepares them physically and mentally for training when they are older. Their motor skills develop and they learn skills like how to run fast, as well as obvious ball skills when carrying out normal soccer skills training.
Once past puberty, speed endurance and strength, speed sessions will have more impact. Before that stage, sessions should not be too intense, involving shorter sessions with little emphasis on stamina. Plyometrics and strength building activities should be carried it with great care pre-puberty. Some coaches prefer to use low level strength and plyometric exercises with younger players, only to get techniques right, and prepare the body for more intense training when they get older.
At all times, however, speed and conditioning sessions are secondary to work done with the ball. Individual skills and team play are the key elements to successful, but having fitness can only make a good player better.
If the player has eaten balanced meals, leading up to matches (and training) then they should have fairly high glycogen stores. A meal containing carbohydrates that are easy to digest can be eaten 3-4 hours before the match and they can also snack on high GI foods, up until the match starts.
The main aim of a pre-match meal is to top up your glycogen stores and also top up fluid stores. It is important that you don't eat too much food and feel uncomfortable and unable to play well.
The amounts and types of food that players eat have an impact on not only their sporting performance but also on their growth and general health levels. It is important that youth players (in fact all children and adults as well) get enough energy from their food intake to carry out day to day tasks as well as any sports activities. This can often mean that three meals a day is not enough and extra energy needs to be supplemented by eating snacks. The problem for most people is that they do not know what to eat for main meals and also what snacks to eat.
The amount and types of food eaten by children and adults that play sports is even more important as their energy requirements are greater, needing sufficient energy levels to not only perform their sport or exercise but also to recover.
Football players (adults) can average approximately 10km running during a match, some midfielders run 12-13km. This type of running, at a variety of paces, requires energy as well as fitness. You can be a very fit player, but without enough energy stored in your body, you will not be able to perform well. Many players run out of steam during the second half and this is often seen as a lack of fitness, but it can often be caused by lack of energy, caused in fact, by lack of carbohydrates in the days leading up to a match.
It is important that players have a good pre-match meal and also that they take on board carbohydrates during a game and especially at half time. Glucose based sports drinks are ideal as they are easy to digest and easy to drink.
Another very important factor related to this, is the amount of fluids that a player drinks. The body is mainly made from water and it’s important you keep it hydrated, especially in hot weather. Water is probably the best liquid to drink to replenish lost fluids.
The three main food types are carbohydrates, fats and proteins, and it’s important that there is a balance of these food types in everyone’s daily food intake. For young athletes, the balance would be around 60 per cent carbohydrate, 25-30 per cent from fats and around 15 per cent from proteins.
Flexibility In Youth Football Players
Below is an article taken from American journal of sports medicine.
(www.asm/soccer/flex.com)
Flexibility and Youth
Contrary to what you might think, your child’s natural flexibility varies by age:
- Losing Flexibility: Children aged 10 and up start to lose flexibility because their bones are growing faster than their muscles.
- Gaining Flexibility: Around the age of 13 (for girls), and 14 (for boys), flexibility starts to improve again.
- Staying Flexible: It is therefore important for kids in sports to stay flexible between the ages of 10-13 when they have less natural flexibility.
Flexibility and Soccer
Unfortunately, soccer is not a sport like gymnastics or swimming that naturally develops flexibility. As a result, staying flexible is even more important for children playing soccer. The during warm-up before a practice or game, and during the cool-down after practice cannot be overemphasized.
Flexibility and Injury
An article in the American Journal of Sports Medicine (AJSM) found that athletes with poor muscle flexibility experience more soreness, tenderness and pain after exercise. The less flexible the muscle the more easily it sustains damage.
Another AJSM study suggests that the most common soccer injury linked to poor flexibility is a groin strain. This is obviously the area that has to be kept the most flexible.
Testing Your Child’s Flexibility
Here are some simple tests tailored for soccer that you can use to test your child’s flexibility:
GROIN FLEXIBILITY
- While standing, have her spread her legs as wide apart as possible. If the angle between the legs is less than 90o she has low groin flexibility.
HIP FLEXIBILITY
- While lying on a table with one leg fully bent, have him hold one leg close to his chest, while lowering the other over the side of the table. If the thigh dips below the line of the table then he has good hip flexibility.
HAMSTRING FLEXIBILITY
- Again, while your child lies on a table with both legs straight, try to push one leg back as far as possible without causing any pain or discomfort to your child. Make sure the leg is kept straight. Your child has passed this flexibility test if the angle between the leg on the table and the one being pushed back is more than 90 degrees.
ANKLE (ACHILLES TENDON) FLEXIBILITY
- Have your child squat down with both feet about shoulder-width apart. She has good flexibility if she can do this with both heels touching the ground.
QUADRICEPS (FRONT OF THIGH) FLEXIBILITY
- While your child is lying down face-first on a table/couch, push her heel as far back up to the buttocks as possible without causing any pain/discomfort. A soccer player with good flexibility will be able to touch the heel to the buttocks.
Cricket
Characteristics of the Sport
Cricket is a game of skill. Teams of eleven play against each other. Teams include specialist batsmen, specialist bowlers, a wicket keeper and a few all-rounders. Theoretically, all team members get to bat and field, while only the specialists are required to bowl. Competition is structured as limited-over (one-day) games which involve one innings (maximum 50 overs) per side or four- to five- day games which involve two innings per side. The game is based on skill but in recent years the requirement for aerobic fitness has increased.
Training
Cricket is primarily a summer sport, with the season running from October to April in Australia. At the international level, cricketers can play nearly all year round. International tours occur throughout the year and many players choose to play in the national cricket season of countries in the opposite hemisphere during the Australian winter, for example, county cricket in England. Recreational cricketers are generally inactive throughout the off-season unless they participate in another sport or undertake their own fitness training.
At first-grade level, pre-season training begins around June with general fitness work. Skill work becomes a priority as the season approaches. Training sessions focus on batting and bowling practice and fielding skills. Sessions typically run for 2-21/2 hours. Weights and aerobic sessions such as running or swimming are also included in the training week. At lower grades there may be little or no organised training.
Competition
District cricket is played on weekends and may be in the form of two-day fixtures or one-day competition. Female cricketers play in the Women’s' National League.
The International cricket season involves a one-day series and a test series (five-day matches). Players may be involved in one or both types of competition. Players usually return to play in their county competition when not required for international commitments.
The physical requirements of a cricket game vary with the format of the match (one-day versus multi-day) and the player's position in the team. Test matches are played during the day (usually between 11am and 6pm). Limited-over matches are played as either day or day-night matches under lights. Matches are typically played in varying conditions.
Physical Characteristics
Cricketers come in all shapes and sizes. Compare David Boone and Glen McGrath. Modern cricketers are required to be fitter than ever before and very high levels of body fat are no longer tolerated. Lean cricketers are quicker, more agile, have greater stamina and better heat tolerance. Fast bowlers, in particular, benefit from low levels of body fat.
Common Nutrition Issues
Training Nutrition
Elite cricketers can have a busy training schedule with multiple sessions throughout the day. The intensity of sessions can range from low to very high. Cricketers need to base their intake on nutrient- dense foods such as cereals, fruit, vegetables, low fat dairy products and lean meat or vegetarian alternatives. Food intake needs to be well-timed to help with recovery between sessions. Intake may need to be adjusted to match the activity level of each day with extra snacks being included on heavier days.
Body Fat Levels
Unless regular conditioning sessions are included in training, cricket can involve long hours of low intensity activity. Players can often find themselves gaining unwanted weight, particularly when enjoying the social side of cricket. Cricketers wanting to lose body fat need to assess their training load. It may be necessary to undertake some aerobic activity in addition to scheduled training sessions. Long-term changes need to be made to food intake. Key areas to target are fat intake and alcohol intake.
Match Day Nutrition
Cricketers need to stay fuelled and hydrated throughout a game. Ideally, a meal which is based on carbohydrate and includes some protein, fibre, vitamins, minerals and small amounts of fat should be consumed before a cricket match. Good choices include cereal, yoghurt, sandwiches, pasta and fruit. The timing of the meal can be difficult, especially when the team bats first, and players have no idea when they will be required to participate. Ideally, players should eat 2-4 hours before the game begins and include snacks such as fruit, cereal bars, yoghurt and sandwiches every 1-3 hours while waiting to bat.
Drink breaks are generally scheduled every hour. Combating dehydration is an important issue, and cricketers should drink at least 250-500 ml of fluid at each drink break to replace sweat losses on hot days. For active players such as batsmen, bowlers and the wicket-keeper, the provision of carbohydrate in these drinks may of additional benefit.
In multi-day games, recovery is a primary concern. At the end of the day, players need to replace fluid and carbohydrate. For active players, a carbohydrate-based meal or snack such as sandwiches, fruit, yoghurt, milk drinks or cereal bars should be consumed in conjunction with fluids such as water, juice, cordial or sports drink within an hour of the end of the match.
Alcohol Intake
Alcohol intake is heavily interwoven in the cricketer's lifestyle. High alcohol drinks such as full-strength beer, wine or spirits are not good for fluid replacement as alcohol acts as a diuretic and increases urinary fluid loss. Alcohol can also interfere with the recovery of the body's carbohydrate stores. It is better to avoid alcohol intake during multi-day matches.
Webliography
www.health4sport.com
www.bbcsport.com
Bibliography
Class notes from lesson, Gaynor Paul, 2002-2003
Class notes from lesson, Keith Boaness, 2003