Health related fitness for two sports.
Health related fitness for two sports
I have chosen to compare the related fitness for football, and netball. These two sports first and foremost are, somewhat mistakenly, restricted to gender in peoples ideas. Football is often perceived as a male dominated sport; the facts say otherwise, football being the fastest growing female sport not only within this country but also in larger countries such as the USA. Netball, on the other hand is often viewed as a female sport, this view is slightly more understandable given the relative non-participation of men on a higher stage, but to pigeon-hole sports in the modern era is wrong.
Football, due to the large amount of physical contact is often deemed one of the more physically taxing of competitive sports, injury is not uncommon, although a fair proportion of injury is muscle based - meaning pulls and strains rather than impact injuries. Netball, is a non-contact sport, therefore the risk of impact injury is very low, although there will always be accidental collisions. There is a large amount of movement still involved, with pivoting and turning sharply an important part of the game, injury can result. It is important therefore to be agile and flexible for both sports, for both similar and different reasons. Football is slightly more dynamic, and often played at a higher intensity than netball, whereas netball relies upon intricate movement, both with and without the ball in hand.
The question of endurance is another to consider. Football is played over two periods of 45 minutes whilst netball over 15 minute quarters. Football is somewhat reliant on what position you play as to what intensity you play at, the central roles; especially in midfield seem to be the workhorses. This can be said of netball also, the position of centre is the one position that covers the largest area of play. The endurance needs are different between positions; the goalkeeper in football can be compared to the goalkeeper in netball, these two positions sharing a relatively low workload.
There are of course no restrictions in position for football, a defensive player can move forward at will, though sometimes neglecting their defensive duties can prove costly, this is less of an issue in netball, where the positions are less disciplined as the space you can move between is restricted. There are times when the players will be caught out of position, but far less frequently then in football, where more and more, with the progression of the modern game, players are often asked to increase their workload more and more. This means, ultimately, that endurance is perhaps more of a factor within football than in netball, the game is played over a longer period, with less rest time, and the non-restriction of positions means a heavy workload, more so for positions that require a 'box-to-box' mentality, whereupon their workload is almost from the first minute, until the last.
Speed and strength in both is a slightly controversial issue, it can be argued that in terms of football that a lack of speed and/or strength means a decrease in performance. It can however mean, due to the high skill nature of football that a player without these attributes can contribute to the game differently, either by being an exceptional passer of the ball for example, or excelling in shooting. The success of the player may not be that of one who possesses the attributes of speed and strength - again becoming more important in the modern era, but the numerous positions on a pitch - there are a few general positions on the field of play, but in reality there are many, many more within the game itself. This means that any player that may be lacking in certain areas can almost be compensated by another who holds those attributes. Netball is similar, in a way to this, although the positions are somewhat isolated, and not in the pairs that appear on the football pitch (e.g. there are 2 central defenders in football, whereas there is only one centre on each team, only one goal shooter etc.). The need for speed and strength in netball is not a requirement in open play but can be useful in the act of setting up a shooting opportunity, and by using strength, in the act of shooting itself. Since the ball cannot be passed over more than one third of a netball pitch there is not a huge emphasis on strength whilst passing the ball to a team-mate. Speed is not of a paramount but can be useful in some positions on a netball court, the centre needs to cover a lot of area, and therefore speed would allow them to be more efficient in their movement. The positions involved in shooting, or in the assist to the shooters may require speed to evade a marker or to create space for a pass.
Below is a table comparing the requirements of both football and netball.
Type of fitness(attribute)
Football related needs
Netball related needs
Aerobic
Needed to last 90 minutes. There is a large amount of distance covered. The need to maintain performance
As for football but decreased intensity as only 60 minute duration
Strength
Deal with contact situations e.g. body checks, jumping with opponent or challenging for the ball. Also needed for kicking the ball/tackling and throwing
Throwing
Flexibility
Tackling, turning, twisting, jumping, diving (for goalkeepers), getting up from the ground, control, sprinting, headers, kicking.
Interceptions, turning, twisting, jumping, sprinting.
Power
Contact, tackling, passing, kicking, shooting, headers, acceleration, jumping, control, acceleration, running, changing direction
Shooting, acceleration, jumping, running, changing direction
Speed
As power
As power
Endurance
As aerobic
As aerobic
Agility
Jumping, diving, turning and twisting (mainly for goalkeepers)
Jumping, turning and twisting (covers all positions)
Fitness requirements for three sports
There are different definitions of fitness actually means, but one common way it is described is as the 5 S's
? Speed
? Strength
? Stamina
? Suppleness
? Skill
Two other S's sometimes associated with describing fitness are
? Specificity (what do you need to fit for)
? Spirit (psychological aspect)
One key element is specifity, in that what you want to be fit for, determines which of these S's has the most weight or importance. For example, a golfer would not need much speed but would need a lot of skill.
A 100m sprinter needs speed, strength, but not much stamina, a gymnast needs strength, skill, suppleness and stamina. However this stamina is different from the type of stamina that an endurance runner needs.
Boxing
Physiological Characteristics of Boxing:
Boxing is a sport of intermittent nature, characterized by short duration, high intensity bursts of activity. It requires significant anaerobic fitness, and operates within a well-developed aerobic system. Boxing is estimated to be 70-80% anaerobic and 20-30% aerobic.
Boxing has a work/rest ratio is approximately 3:1. The nature of boxing requires athletes to sustain power at a high percentage of V02 max (often above lactate threshold, producing high levels of blood lactate leading to premature fatigue). The primary aims of conditioning for boxing are to delay the onset of fatigue by increasing tolerance to lactic acid build-up, to increase stores of phospho-creatine to produce ATP, to delay the pre-mature use of the lactic acid system, to improve efficiency of oxygen use, and to improve recovery between intense bursts of activity.
Energy Systems:
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the source of energy for all muscle contractions. When ATP is broken down into ADP (adenosine diphosphate), energy is released. Maintaining the availability of ATP is the limiting performance factor, as ATP is not stored in large amounts. Exercise and sport are fuelled by three different energy systems that produce ATP; the aerobic system, the lactic acid system (anaerobic glycolysis) and the ATP-PC system. The aerobic pathway is a long-term energy system, while the two anaerobic pathways (lactic acid and ATP-PC) are short term. These 3 pathways however do not act independent of each other, as all activities lie on a spectrum with no distinct boundaries.
Aerobic System:
Aerobic glycolysis occurs when oxygen is readily available to break down pyruvate into ATP. This is a complex process with three primary stages.
. Glycolysis, the breakdown of glucose (or fat) takes place over 9 steps
2. The Krebs cycle
3. The Electron Transfer Chain
The aim of aerobic training is to improve the working capacity of the heart and its ability to deliver oxygen to the muscles. There are 2 main ways to train this system:
. Long duration interval running
2. Long distance (low intensity) steady state running
Studies have found continuous training as the optimal way to improve oxygen delivery, while interval training increases oxygen utilisation and lactate threshold. With interval training, there is the ability to perform large amounts of high intensity work in shorter time. This type of training can also be manipulated to alter which metabolic pathway is emphasized, longer intervals involve more aerobic pathways, and shorter intervals involve more anaerobic pathways.
With long distance training the aim is to run longer than the event lasts in an attempt to overload the system.
General methods of developing aerobic endurance:
. Steady-state continuous runs: 5-10km (about 70-80% V02 max)
2. Long duration interval training: 4-6 sets of 2-5 minute intervals (work/rest ratio of 1:1 or 1:2)
3. Short duration interval training: 10 sets of 400m (work/rest ratio of 1:1 or 1:2)
4. Shorter duration interval training: 20 sets of 200m (work/rest ratio of 1:1 or 1:2)
at high levels of activity, the aerobic system cannot supply enough oxygen to fuel the exercise, forcing the athlete to work in oxygen debt. When activity is performed without the use of oxygen, it is fuelled by the anaerobic pathways.
Lactic Acid System:
This is defined as "the incomplete breakdown of glycogen in the absence of oxygen". This occurs during periods of activity lasting approximately 90 seconds, but ranges from 15 secs to 2 minutes. This pathway begins the same as the aerobic pathway, except the breakdown of glucose into pyruvic acid occurs in the absence of oxygen, and is converted to lactic acid.
Lactate is produced and transforms to lactic acid from pyruvate. This dissociates into lactate and hydrogen ions, causing an increase in muscle acidity leading to muscular fatigue. The removal of ...
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Lactic Acid System:
This is defined as "the incomplete breakdown of glycogen in the absence of oxygen". This occurs during periods of activity lasting approximately 90 seconds, but ranges from 15 secs to 2 minutes. This pathway begins the same as the aerobic pathway, except the breakdown of glucose into pyruvic acid occurs in the absence of oxygen, and is converted to lactic acid.
Lactate is produced and transforms to lactic acid from pyruvate. This dissociates into lactate and hydrogen ions, causing an increase in muscle acidity leading to muscular fatigue. The removal of this lactic acid is slow and requires nearly 15-20 minutes removing half of the concentration formed.
ATP-PC System:
This system uses creatine phosphate to generate intense bursts of activity, lasting 10-15 seconds in duration. This system has the ability to completely replenish stores after depletion (within a period of 2-3 minutes rest). A drop in ATP promotes a reaction between phospho-creatine molecules and ADP, resulting in the immediate production of ATP without the use of oxygen or production of lactic acid. During recovery when sufficient amounts of ATP can be produced aerobically, excess ATP is converted back to phospho-creatine.
The aim of this type of training is to develop the athlete's tolerance to muscular fatigue (due to increases in metabolic buffers and larger stores of phospho-creatine). Training the lactic acid system involves a special form of interval training that maximally stresses the metabolic pathway at intensities of 85-100% V02 max. It is performed with intervals of 15-40 seconds as well as intervals of 40-90 seconds. Recovery periods are long, as the lactic acid formed leads to fatigue. This training is physically hard and can drastically reduce glycogen stores.
. 5-8 sets of 300m (work/rest ratio of 1:10)
2. 10-15 sets of 150m (work/rest ratio of 1:10)
3. 6-8 sets of 45 -120 second intervals.
To improve the ATP-PC system, you must train with high intensity short-term efforts at 100+% V02 max. Intense intervals often range from 5 -10 seconds. Reps and sets depend on the athlete's fitness. Lactic acid production is minimal which allows for brief recovery periods.
. 3 sets of 10x30m sprints (work/rest ratio of 1:4, plus 5 minutes recovery per set)
2. 15 sets of 60m sprints (work/rest ratio of 1:4)
3. 20 sets of 20m sprints (work/rest ratio of 1:4)
Specific Conditioning:
A boxing training program should place great emphasis on the anaerobic pathways. The most specific way to condition for boxing is a form of interval running that mimics the work/rest ratios involved, intervals matching the duration of a round (2 or 3 minutes), with a 1 minute rest period. Intervals of this nature train the anaerobic lactic acid system, while also providing aerobic benefits.
Another effective way to train the lactic acid system for boxing is to perform situational exercises, lasting 30-60 seconds for 6-8 sets, while sparring. For example one athlete could constantly attack for 60 seconds while the other defends, or alternatively, if training alone you could throw continuous combinations against a bag.
By training the lactic acid system, the athlete delays the onset of fatigue by increasing tolerance to lactic acid build-up.
While the lactic acid system is most important to boxing, training the ATP-PC system also has benefits, such as increasing the body's stores of phospho-creatine and delaying the pre-mature use of the lactic acid system. Training this system requires shorter interval periods. To increase the specificity to boxing, you could again use situational drills. A sample routine could consist of 10-15 sets lasting 6-10 seconds.
Although the emphasis of training should be on developing the anaerobic energy systems, it is important recognize the importance of steady state running, and longer interval training. The aim of endurance training is to improve the efficiency of oxygen use and aid the recovery between intense bursts of anaerobic activity. The main application for boxing is to permit greater recovery from anaerobic work (via lactate metabolism and removal of waste products), which is crucial between rounds.
Additional benefits of aerobic training include:
. Sustained activities lasting over 2 minutes have a higher aerobic content. Although primarily anaerobic, a 3-minute round still requires contribution from the aerobic system.
2. Activities lie on a spectrum with no distinct boundaries. Even in short term activities, of 20 seconds or less, there is a contribution from the aerobic system.
3. Fat can only be utilised by the use of oxygen, so when making weight, aerobic training is an important tool.
4. An aerobic fitness base aids recovery between intense bursts of activity.
5. Aerobic training leads to improvements in lactate threshold - point at which lactate production exceeds lactate removal
In addition to general endurance training, sport specific aerobic training could involve performing longer rounds (5-6 minutes) at reduced intensities using the rest period of 1:2.
Football
Team sports like football make it even harder to determine what areas of fitness are required. The types required will depend upon positions and role in the team, but one key area is skill and specifity. Football players should be soccer players first and athletes second. This doesn't mean that their athletic areas of fitness, speed, strength, stamina etc. are not important, because they are, but skill and specifity and perhaps spirit are the most important.
Having said that, a very skilful player who cannot last the whole match due to lack of stamina, or cannot get to the ball due to lack of speed, is not as useful to the team as the player who has slightly less skill, but more speed and stamina.
Football fitness
Football players need a combination of aerobic and anaerobic fitness due to the nature of the game and the fact that there is continuous movement with lots of short bursts of more intense activity. Some positions require higher levels of anaerobic fitness than others, some require more aerobic fitness. A midfield player is required to cover a lot of ground during a game and needs a good aerobic engine. A striker on the other hand requires short bursts of repeated activity and requires more speed and anaerobic fitness.
One key aspect of fitness is that each player is different and has different training requirements dependant upon their inherent physical abilities, their desire to train, age and position played. Football is a team sport and as such, players train together as a team. This is important for many reasons, but it also means that not all conditioning type sessions or activities have equal benefits across all players.
Where time is available to test and analyse results, it is much better if programs can be tailored for each player or group of players with the same requirements. This is important from around the age of 13 and up, when the effects of training have much more of an impact. Conditioning and speed training at 10-13 years has less impact. FA coaching reports suggested that player's 10-12 benefit from training in that it prepares them physically and mentally for training when they are older. Their motor skills develop and they learn skills like how to run fast, as well as obvious ball skills when carrying out normal soccer skills training.
Once past puberty, speed endurance and strength, speed sessions will have more impact. Before that stage, sessions should not be too intense, involving shorter sessions with little emphasis on stamina. Plyometrics and strength building activities should be carried it with great care pre-puberty. Some coaches prefer to use low level strength and plyometric exercises with younger players, only to get techniques right, and prepare the body for more intense training when they get older.
At all times, however, speed and conditioning sessions are secondary to work done with the ball. Individual skills and team play are the key elements to successful, but having fitness can only make a good player better.
If the player has eaten balanced meals, leading up to matches (and training) then they should have fairly high glycogen stores. A meal containing carbohydrates that are easy to digest can be eaten 3-4 hours before the match and they can also snack on high GI foods, up until the match starts.
The main aim of a pre-match meal is to top up your glycogen stores and also top up fluid stores. It is important that you don't eat too much food and feel uncomfortable and unable to play well.
The amounts and types of food that players eat have an impact on not only their sporting performance but also on their growth and general health levels. It is important that youth players (in fact all children and adults as well) get enough energy from their food intake to carry out day to day tasks as well as any sports activities. This can often mean that three meals a day is not enough and extra energy needs to be supplemented by eating snacks. The problem for most people is that they do not know what to eat for main meals and also what snacks to eat.
The amount and types of food eaten by children and adults that play sports is even more important as their energy requirements are greater, needing sufficient energy levels to not only perform their sport or exercise but also to recover.
Football players (adults) can average approximately 10km running during a match, some midfielders run 12-13km. This type of running, at a variety of paces, requires energy as well as fitness. You can be a very fit player, but without enough energy stored in your body, you will not be able to perform well. Many players run out of steam during the second half and this is often seen as a lack of fitness, but it can often be caused by lack of energy, caused in fact, by lack of carbohydrates in the days leading up to a match.
It is important that players have a good pre-match meal and also that they take on board carbohydrates during a game and especially at half time. Glucose based sports drinks are ideal as they are easy to digest and easy to drink.
Another very important factor related to this, is the amount of fluids that a player drinks. The body is mainly made from water and it's important you keep it hydrated, especially in hot weather. Water is probably the best liquid to drink to replenish lost fluids.
The three main food types are carbohydrates, fats and proteins, and it's important that there is a balance of these food types in everyone's daily food intake. For young athletes, the balance would be around 60 per cent carbohydrate, 25-30 per cent from fats and around 15 per cent from proteins.
Flexibility In Youth Football Players
Below is an article taken from American journal of sports medicine.
(www.asm/soccer/flex.com)
Flexibility and Youth
Contrary to what you might think, your child's natural flexibility varies by age:
* Losing Flexibility: Children aged 10 and up start to lose flexibility because their bones are growing faster than their muscles.
* Gaining Flexibility: Around the age of 13 (for girls), and 14 (for boys), flexibility starts to improve again.
* Staying Flexible: It is therefore important for kids in sports to stay flexible between the ages of 10-13 when they have less natural flexibility.
Flexibility and Soccer
Unfortunately, soccer is not a sport like gymnastics or swimming that naturally develops flexibility. As a result, staying flexible is even more important for children playing soccer. The importance of stretching during warm-up before a practice or game, and during the cool-down after practice cannot be overemphasized.
Flexibility and Injury
An article in the American Journal of Sports Medicine (AJSM) found that athletes with poor muscle flexibility experience more soreness, tenderness and pain after exercise. The less flexible the muscle the more easily it sustains damage.
Another AJSM study suggests that the most common soccer injury linked to poor flexibility is a groin strain. This is obviously the area that has to be kept the most flexible.
Testing Your Child's Flexibility
Here are some simple tests tailored for soccer that you can use to test your child's flexibility:
GROIN FLEXIBILITY
* While standing, have her spread her legs as wide apart as possible. If the angle between the legs is less than 90o she has low groin flexibility.
HIP FLEXIBILITY
* While lying on a table with one leg fully bent, have him hold one leg close to his chest, while lowering the other over the side of the table. If the thigh dips below the line of the table then he has good hip flexibility.
HAMSTRING FLEXIBILITY
* Again, while your child lies on a table with both legs straight, try to push one leg back as far as possible without causing any pain or discomfort to your child. Make sure the leg is kept straight. Your child has passed this flexibility test if the angle between the leg on the table and the one being pushed back is more than 90 degrees.
ANKLE (ACHILLES TENDON) FLEXIBILITY
* Have your child squat down with both feet about shoulder-width apart. She has good flexibility if she can do this with both heels touching the ground.
QUADRICEPS (FRONT OF THIGH) FLEXIBILITY
* While your child is lying down face-first on a table/couch, push her heel as far back up to the buttocks as possible without causing any pain/discomfort. A soccer player with good flexibility will be able to touch the heel to the buttocks.
Cricket
Characteristics of the Sport
Cricket is a game of skill. Teams of eleven play against each other. Teams include specialist batsmen, specialist bowlers, a wicket keeper and a few all-rounders. Theoretically, all team members get to bat and field, while only the specialists are required to bowl. Competition is structured as limited-over (one-day) games which involve one innings (maximum 50 overs) per side or four- to five- day games which involve two innings per side. The game is based on skill but in recent years the requirement for aerobic fitness has increased.
Training
Cricket is primarily a summer sport, with the season running from October to April in Australia. At the international level, cricketers can play nearly all year round. International tours occur throughout the year and many players choose to play in the national cricket season of countries in the opposite hemisphere during the Australian winter, for example, county cricket in England. Recreational cricketers are generally inactive throughout the off-season unless they participate in another sport or undertake their own fitness training.
At first-grade level, pre-season training begins around June with general fitness work. Skill work becomes a priority as the season approaches. Training sessions focus on batting and bowling practice and fielding skills. Sessions typically run for 2-21/2 hours. Weights and aerobic sessions such as running or swimming are also included in the training week. At lower grades there may be little or no organised training.
Competition
District cricket is played on weekends and may be in the form of two-day fixtures or one-day competition. Female cricketers play in the Women's' National League.
The International cricket season involves a one-day series and a test series (five-day matches). Players may be involved in one or both types of competition. Players usually return to play in their county competition when not required for international commitments.
The physical requirements of a cricket game vary with the format of the match (one-day versus multi-day) and the player's position in the team. Test matches are played during the day (usually between 11am and 6pm). Limited-over matches are played as either day or day-night matches under lights. Matches are typically played in varying conditions.
Physical Characteristics
Cricketers come in all shapes and sizes. Compare David Boone and Glen McGrath. Modern cricketers are required to be fitter than ever before and very high levels of body fat are no longer tolerated. Lean cricketers are quicker, more agile, have greater stamina and better heat tolerance. Fast bowlers, in particular, benefit from low levels of body fat.
Common Nutrition Issues
Training Nutrition
Elite cricketers can have a busy training schedule with multiple sessions throughout the day. The intensity of sessions can range from low to very high. Cricketers need to base their intake on nutrient- dense foods such as cereals, fruit, vegetables, low fat dairy products and lean meat or vegetarian alternatives. Food intake needs to be well-timed to help with recovery between sessions. Intake may need to be adjusted to match the activity level of each day with extra snacks being included on heavier days.
Body Fat Levels
Unless regular conditioning sessions are included in training, cricket can involve long hours of low intensity activity. Players can often find themselves gaining unwanted weight, particularly when enjoying the social side of cricket. Cricketers wanting to lose body fat need to assess their training load. It may be necessary to undertake some aerobic activity in addition to scheduled training sessions. Long-term changes need to be made to food intake. Key areas to target are fat intake and alcohol intake.
Match Day Nutrition
Cricketers need to stay fuelled and hydrated throughout a game. Ideally, a meal which is based on carbohydrate and includes some protein, fibre, vitamins, minerals and small amounts of fat should be consumed before a cricket match. Good choices include cereal, yoghurt, sandwiches, pasta and fruit. The timing of the meal can be difficult, especially when the team bats first, and players have no idea when they will be required to participate. Ideally, players should eat 2-4 hours before the game begins and include snacks such as fruit, cereal bars, yoghurt and sandwiches every 1-3 hours while waiting to bat.
Drink breaks are generally scheduled every hour. Combating dehydration is an important issue, and cricketers should drink at least 250-500 ml of fluid at each drink break to replace sweat losses on hot days. For active players such as batsmen, bowlers and the wicket-keeper, the provision of carbohydrate in these drinks may of additional benefit.
In multi-day games, recovery is a primary concern. At the end of the day, players need to replace fluid and carbohydrate. For active players, a carbohydrate-based meal or snack such as sandwiches, fruit, yoghurt, milk drinks or cereal bars should be consumed in conjunction with fluids such as water, juice, cordial or sports drink within an hour of the end of the match.
Alcohol Intake
Alcohol intake is heavily interwoven in the cricketer's lifestyle. High alcohol drinks such as full-strength beer, wine or spirits are not good for fluid replacement as alcohol acts as a diuretic and increases urinary fluid loss. Alcohol can also interfere with the recovery of the body's carbohydrate stores. It is better to avoid alcohol intake during multi-day matches.
Fitness Assessment
An assessment allows an individual to establish his or her current level of fitness and identifies strengths and weaknesses which they need to work on in training. The exact tests conducted are made as sports specific as possible so the feedback provided is useful to the player/athlete. Sports specific tests include those for cycling, running, rowing and all field sports. Having a single fitness test done gives only limited information. Repeated testing (e.g. 2-3 times per year) is more valuable as it enables the charting of progress over a period of time and thus indicates the effectiveness of your training program. Fitness testing is suited to anyone competitive or non-competitive, elite or non-elite who want to improve their current level of fitness. An average fitness test takes about 90 min and includes:
* Blood Pressure
* Body Composition (height, weight, % body fat)
* Lung Function
* Leg Power
* Upper body and abdominal strength endurance
* Aerobic Fitness (maximal or sub-maximal tests)
* Flexibility
Additional optional tests include:
* Blood lactate profile
* Haemoglobin
* Biodex Isokinetic strength assessment (useful in assessing cause of reoccurring injuries)
* Anaerobic capacity - 30 second Wingate test / treadmill sprint test
* Sprint tests such as 8 x 40m, 10m-20m-30m sprints
Team Fitness Assessment
Field testing is available where a whole team can be tested at one time in a range of tests. Each player receives a comprehensive report detailing their individual scores in relation to the whole team. Below is an outline of the tests, although these can be amended to suit the particular sport:
* Body Composition - body weight, height and % body fat
* Leg Power and core strength - vertical jump and abdominal test
* Flexibility - hamstring flexibility
* Speed / Acceleration - 10-20-30 metre sprint times
* Anaerobic Endurance - 8 repeats of 40 metre sprints
* Aerobic Endurance - 20 metre bleep test
Life check Health Screen
For those who want to find out their current state of health and fitness. The Life Check Program is particularly suited to those individuals over 30 years and who don't partake in regular physical exercise. The main tests conducted examine those elements that are important to good health. For example blood cholesterol; % body fat and blood pressure are strong predictors of the risk of heart disease. The screening lasts about 90 - 120 min and involves:
* Blood Pressure
* Body Composition (height, weight, % body fat)
* Cholesterol
* Lung Function
* Abdominal strength endurance
* Aerobic Fitness (sub-maximal)
* Flexibility
Additional optional tests include:
* Stress analysis
* Haemoglobin
* Full Cholesterol Profile (Total Cholesterol, Fasting Triglycerides, HDL)
Regular exercise associated with many health benefits, yet any change of activity may increase the risk of injury. Completion of a questionnaire called a PAR-Q (physical activity readiness questionnaire) is a first step when planning to increase the amount of physical activity in your life
Below is an example of a par-q test from http://carlisle-www.army.mil/apfri/par-q.htm
If you are planning to become much more physically active than you are now, start by answering the seven questions in the box below. If you are between the ages of 15 and 69, the PAR-Q will tell you if you should check with your doctor before you start. If you are over 69 years of age, and you are not used to being very active, check with your doctor.
TAKE THE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY READINESS QUESTIONNAIRE
. Has your doctor ever said that you have a heart condition and that you should only do physical activity recommended by a doctor?
yes
no
2. Do you feel pain in your chest when you do physical activity?
yes
no
3. In the past month, have you had chest pain when you were not doing physical activity?
yes
no
4. Do you lose your balance because of dizziness or do you ever lose consciousness?
yes
no
5. Do you have a bone or joint problem that could be made worse by a change in your physical activity?
yes
no
6. Is your doctor currently prescribing drugs (for example, water pills) for your blood pressure or heart condition?
yes
no
7. Do you know of any other reason why you should not do physical activity?
yes
no
IF YOU ANSWERED YES TO ONE OR MORE QUESTIONS
Talk with your doctor by phone or in person BEFORE you start becoming much more physically active or BEFORE you have a fitness appraisal. Tell your doctor about the PAR-Q and which questions you answered YES.
* You may be able to do any activity you want -- as long as you start slowly and build up gradually. Or, you may need to restrict your activities to those which are safe for you. Talk with your doctor about the kinds of activities you wish to participate in and follow his/her advice.
* Find out which community programs are safe and helpful for you.
If you answered NO to all questions.
IF YOU ANSWERED NO HONESTLY TO
ALL QUESTIONS you can be reasonably sure that you can:
* start becoming much more physically active -- begin slowly and build up gradually. This is the safest and easiest way to go.
* take part in a fitness appraisal -- this is an excellent way to determine your basic fitness so that you can plan the best way for you to live actively.
Fitness testing is important for several reasons:
* Acquired data can be used by your trainer to design an individual exercise program for you, resulting in maximum benefits.
* Data identifies strengths and weaknesses so changes can be initiated.
* Testing body composition determines if fat loss is occurring even if body weight isn't changing. Often happens during the first two or three months of an exercise program.
* When performed regularly (every two or three months) results can document improvement (or lack of) and modifications, if necessary, can be applied.
* Enables you to set attainable goals.
* Serves as a powerful motivating factor, encouraging you to continue to improve.
Practice of health screening and fitness testing
I utilised a group for the practical element of fitness testing, in this case the Charlton ladies academy, and implemented four different fitness tests, which were;
* Sargeant Jump
* Multi stage fitness (bleep) test
* Illinois agility test
* 30 metre sprint test
Illinois agility test
The objective of the Illinois Agility Run Test is to monitor the development of the athlete's agility.
Required Resources
To undertake this test you will require :
* flat surface - a 400m Track
* 8 cones
* Stop watch
* Assistant
The Illinois course
The length of the course is 10 metres and the width (distance between the start and finish points) is 5 metres. On the track you could use 5 lanes.
4 cones can be used to mark the start, finish and the two turning points. Each cone in the centre is spaced 3.3 metres apart.
How to conduct the test
The Illinois Agility Run Test is conducted as follows:
* The athlete lies face down on the floor at the start point
* On the assistant's command the athlete jumps to his/her feet and negotiates the course around the cones to the finish
* The assistant records the total time time taken from his command to the athlete completing the course.
Multi-stage fitness test
The objective of this test is to monitor the development of the athlete's maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max).
Required Resources
To undertake this test you will require :
* A flat, non slippery surface at least 20 metres in length
* 30 metre tape measure
* Marking cones
* Pre-recorded audio tape
* Tape recorder
* Recording sheets
* Assistant
How to conduct the test
The test is made up of 23 levels where each level lasts approx 1 minute. Each level comprises of a series of 20m shuttles where the starting speed is 8.5km/hr and increases by 0.5km/hr at each level. On the tape a single beep indicates the end of a shuttle and 3 beeps indicates the start of the next level. The test is conducted as follows:
* Measure out a 20 metres section and mark each end with a marker cone
* The athlete carries out a warm up programme of jogging and stretching exercises
* The test is conducted
o The athlete must place one foot on or beyond the 20m marker at the end of each shuttle
o If the athlete arrives at the end of a shuttle before the beep, the athlete must wait for the bleep and then resume running
o The athlete keeps running for as long as possible until he/she can longer keep up with the speed set by the tape at which point they should voluntarily withdraw.
o If the athlete fails to reach the end of the shuttle before the beep they should be allowed 2 or 3 further shuttles to attempt to regain the required pace before being withdrawn
* Record the level and number of shuttles completed at that level by the athlete
* At the end of the test the athletes conduct a warm down programme, including stretching exercises
Sergeant jump test
Objective
To monitor the development of the athlete's elastic leg strength.
Required Resources
To undertake this test you will require :
* A wall
* 1 metre Tape Measure
* Chalk
* An assistant
How to conduct the test
The athlete:
* chalks the end of his finger tips
* stands side onto the wall, keeping both feet remaining on the ground, reaches up as high as possible with with one hand and marks the wall with the tips of the fingers (M1)
* from a static position jumps as high as possible and marks the wall with the chalk on his finger tips (M2)
30 metre sprint test
As the name suggest the participants have to sprint a flat distance of 30 metres, they race by themselves, and have three attempts each.
What facilities do I need
* Somewhere to run - an Athletics Track or sports field
* Somewhere to do exercises - gymnasium
* Somewhere to do strength training - weight training room
The results for the four tests were as follows
Name
Sprint 1 (secs)
Sprint 2
Sprint 3
Bleep test (stage)
Sergeant (cm)
Illinois (secs)
Subject 1
4.38
4.55
4.62
0.9
7.56
Subject 2
4.8
4.48
4.65
9
39
8.54
Subject 3
4.52
4.48
4.41
1.9
29
8.11
Subject 4
3.92
4.27
4.02
0.5
26
9.36
Subject 5
4.68
4.33
4.4
2.2
33
7.91
Subject 6
4.28
4.13
4.83
6.87
Subject 7
5.17
4.57
4.59
9
32.5
8.53
Subject 8
4.64
4.7
4.65
9
28
8.93
Subject 9
4.36
4.39
4.13
8.8
27
8.99
Subject 10
4.07
3.84
3.97
1.2
41
6.78
Subject 11
4.63
4.59
5.04
7.9
Subject 12
4.33
4.52
4.58
9.34
Subject 13
4.29
4.48
4.02
1.7
31.5
7.7
Subject 14
4.53
4.5
4.65
9.9
33.5
8.32
Subject 15
5.59
5.49
4.72
8.9
37
9.34
Subject 16
4.4
4.08
4.18
1.1
36.5
7.5
Subject 17
4.28
4.27
4.26
7.72
Subject 18
4.33
4.23
4.23
9.9
31
8.33
Note; some participants were unavailable for all four of the tests but those who were unavailable are given results for previous tests
Positions within the team for the purpose of analysis are determined by font colour
Goalkeepers - Blue
Defenders - Red
Midfielders - Green
Forwards - Yellow
The best results in each category are highlighted in purple
Comparisons and suggestions
Subject 10 we see scores highest in all but one event being the multistage fitness test, thus suggesting that an increase in appropriate aerobic training need be the only dramatic suggestion for a change of fitness training; we must also note that position may have a part to play in the abilities of subject 10, they are a forward therefore the need and focus on speed as part of the game is more so than most positions on the field.
the objective of endurance training
The objective of endurance training is to develop the energy production system(s) to meet the demands of the event.
the energy production systems
In the human body, food energy is used to manufacture adenosine triphosphate (ATP) the chemical compound that supplies energy for muscular contraction. Since ATP is in very low concentrations in the muscle, and since it decreases only to a minor extent, even in the most intense voluntary contraction, tightly controlled energy pathways exist for the continual regeneration of ATP as muscular contraction continues. For continuous exercise, ATP must be re-synthesised at the same rate as it is utilised.
types of endurance
The types of endurance are Aerobic endurance, Anaerobic endurance, Speed endurance and Strength endurance. A sound basis of aerobic endurance is fundamental for all events.
Distance/Event
% Aerobic
%Anaerobic
200 metres
5
95
400 metres
7
83
800 metres
34
66
500 metres
55
45
5000 metres
80
20
0,000 metres
90
0
Marathon
98
2
Aerobic Endurance
Aerobic means 'with oxygen'. During aerobic work the body is working at a level that the demands for oxygen and fuel can be meet by the body's intake. The only waste products formed are carbon dioxide and water. These are removed as sweat and by breathing out.
Aerobic endurance can sub-divided as follows:
* Short aerobic - 2 minutes to 8 minutes (lactic/aerobic)
* Medium aerobic - 8 minutes to 30 minutes (mainly aerobic)
* Long aerobic - 30 minutes + (aerobic)
Aerobic endurance is developed through the use of continuous and interval running.
* Continuous duration runs to improve maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max)
* Interval training to improve the heart as a muscular pump.
Aerobic threshold
The aerobic threshold, point at which anaerobic energy pathways start to operate, is considered to be around 75% of maximum heart rate. This is approximately 20 beats lower than the anaerobic threshold.
Subject 5 - The multi stage test proved very successful for subject 5, indicating a high VO2 max level, and a high level of aerobic endurance, however there is a need to improve on speed endurance and explosive power. This suggests some anaerobic work may be useful, utilising weights to build muscular strength.
Anaerobic endurance
Anaerobic means 'without oxygen'. During anaerobic work, involving maximum effort, the body is working so hard that the demands for oxygen and fuel exceed the rate of supply and the muscles have to rely on the stored reserves of fuel. In this case waste products accumulate, the chief one being lactic acid. The muscles, being starved of oxygen, take the body into a state known as oxygen debt. The body's stored fuel soon runs out and activity ceases - painfully. Activity will not be resumed until the lactic acid is removed and the oxygen debt repaid. Fortunately the body can resume limited activity after even only a small proportion of the oxygen debt has been repaid. Since lactic acid is produced the correct term for this pathway is lactic anaerobic energy pathway. The alactic anaerobic pathway is the one in which the body is working anaerobically but without the production of lactic acid. This pathway can exist only so long as the fuel actually stored in the muscle lasts, approximately 4 seconds at maximum effort.
Anaerobic endurance can be sub-divided as follows:
* Short anaerobic - less than 25 seconds (mainly alactic)
* Medium anaerobic - 25 seconds to 60 seconds (mainly lactic)
* Long anaerobic - 60 seconds to 120 seconds (lactic +aerobic)
Anaerobic endurance can be developed by using repetition methods of relatively high intensity work with limited recovery.
Anaerobic threshold
The anaerobic threshold, the point at which lactic acid starts to accumulates in the muscles, is considered to be somewhere between 85% and 90% of your maximum heart rate. This is approximately 20 beats high than the aerobic threshold. Your anaerobic threshold can be determined with anaerobic threshold testing.
Speed endurance
Speed endurance is used to develop the co-ordination of muscle contraction. Repetition methods are used with a high number of sets, low number of repetitions per set and intensity greater than 85% with distances covered from 60% to 120% of racing distance. Competition and time trials can be used in the development of speed endurance.
Strength endurance
Strength endurance is used to develop the athlete's capacity to maintain the quality of their muscles' contractile force. All athletes need to develop a basic level of strength endurance. Examples of activities to develop strength endurance are - circuit training, weight training, hill running, harness running, Fartlek etc.
What is speed?
Speed is the quickness of movement of a limb, whether this is the legs of a runner or the arm of the shot putter. Speed is an integral part of every sport and can be expressed as any one of, or combination of, the following:
* maximum speed
* elastic strength (power)
* speed endurance
What is speed influenced by?
Speed is influenced by the athlete's mobility, special strength, strength endurance and technique.
Energy system for speed
Energy for absolute speed is supplied by the anaerobic alactic pathway. The anaerobic (without oxygen) alactic (without lactate) energy system is best challenged as an athlete approaches top speed between 30 and 60m while running at 95% to 100% of maximum. This speed component of anaerobic metabolism lasts for approximately six seconds and should be trained when no muscle fatigue is present (usually after 24 to 36 hours of rest)
How do we develop Speed?
The technique of sprinting must be rehearsed at slow speeds and then transferred to runs at maximum speed. The stimulation, excitation and correct firing order of the motor units, composed of a motor nerve (Neuron) and the group of muscles that it supplies, makes it possible for high frequency movements to occur. The whole process is not totally clear but the complex coordination and timing of the motor units and muscles most certainly must be rehearsed at high speeds to implant the correct patterns.
Flexibility and a correct warm up will affect stride length and frequency (strike rate). Stride length can be improved by developing muscular strength, power, strength endurance and running technique. The development of speed is highly specific and to achieve it we should ensure that:
* Flexibility is developed and maintained all year round
* Strength and speed are developed in parallel
* Skill development (technique) is pre-learned, rehearsed and perfected before it is done at high speed levels
* Speed training is performed by using high velocity for brief intervals. This will ultimately bring into play the correct neuromuscular pathways and energy sources used
Sprinting speed
Sprinting speed can be developed in a number of ways:
* Towing - the athlete is towed behind a motor cycle at a speed of 0.1 to 0.3 secs faster that the athlete's best for a rolling 30m. This pace is held for 20m to 30m following a gradual build up to max speed over 60m to 70m
* Elastic Pull - two tubular elastic ropes are attached to the athlete - two coaches, positioned forward and to each side of the athlete, extend the elastic to full stretch and the athlete is virtually catapulted over the first 10m from a standing of crouched start
Sprint Technique
Development of your sprint technique is just as important as the development of your strength and endurance.
General Notes taken from www.sportcoachuk.org
As you monitor the athlete's technique look for:
* a Tall action
o This means erect, running on the ball of foot/toes (not heels) with full extension of the back, hips and legs as opposed to 'sitting down' when running
* a Relaxed action
o This means move easily, as opposed to tensing and 'working hard' to move. Let the movements of running flow. Keep the hands relaxed, the shoulders low and the arm swing rhythmically by the sides.
* a Smooth action
o This means float across the top of the ground. All motion should be forward, not up and down. Leg action should be efficient and rhythmic. The legs should move easily under the body like a wheel rolling smoothly along.
* Drive
o This means push from an extended rear leg, rear elbow drive with a high forward knee drive followed by a strike and claw foot action just behind the body's centre of gravity.
Webliography
www.health4sport.com
www.bbcsport.com
www.sportcoachuk.org
Bibliography
Class notes from lesson, Gaynor Paul, 2002-2003
Class notes from lesson, Keith Boaness, 2003