It is important to remember that although tests are extremely helpful, the results are not definitive and other factors on the day of the tests need to be taken in to consideration e.g. illness, injury, fatigue.
My Results
I am quite pleased with my results for the vertical jump test and the long jump test, however I feel that my sit-and-reach test results could be improved. It highlights the lack of flexibility I have in my hamstrings so I will definitely try to improve on it.
Warm Up & Cool Down
The warm-up section of a training programme, and before any physical activity is very important. Warm up’s consist of two sections – a gentle jog to raise the body’s heart rate and gentle stretches to improve flexibility. The benefits of a warm up are well noted, for example after a warm up there is:
- An increase in the speed of contraction and relaxation of warmed muscles.
- A reduction of muscle stiffness.
- An increase in the amount of oxygen used to provide energy by warmed muscles, because haemoglobin releases more oxygen readily at higher temperatures (because it is an enzyme).
- An increase in the muscles metabolism and nerve transmission. It can also facilitate motor unit recruitment.
- An increase in the blood flow through active tissues (this is due to the local vascular beds dilating). This increases muscle temperature and the rate of metabolism in the muscle.
As the body’s heart rate is increased, more oxygen is carried around the body in the red blood cells providing more energy. There are four types of stretches that can be performed in a warm up:
Active Stretching – This is when the performer moves a part of the body in to a position just beyond the normal range and holds that position for 10 seconds.
Passive Stretching – This is when a part of the body being moved by a partner beyond the normal range of movement, it is then held for 10 seconds.
Ballistic (Dynamic) Stretching – This involves swinging/bouncing movements to take the body beyond the normal range of movement.
Proprioceptive Neuro-muscular Facilitation (PNF) – This is when a performer stretches to a point just beyond the normal range of movement. A partner then holds this position whilst the performer contracts the antagonistic muscles. They then relax the muscle and repeat the action.
Examples Of Static, PNF & Ballistic Stretching
It has been researched and suggested that active stretches do not alleviate muscle stiffness (the ratio between the change in muscle resistance and the change in muscle length) as well as ballistic stretches. This is because dynamic stretches effectively use the properties of muscle spindles (a sensor in the muscle that detects the sense and speed of a stretch). By gradually increasing the stretch of the limb (e.g. the leg) to go higher and higher, it safely allows the muscle spindle to safely lengthen. My training programme will be concentrated on improving flexibility and strength so it will be vitally important that my muscles are not stiff. For this reason I believe it will be better to perform ballistic stretches in the warm up section, and active stretches in the cool down section, as these would help to relax the muscles.
Warm Up
Gentle jog on the treadmill for 5 minutes running at a speed of 7 km/h at 0% incline.
Stretches:
Joint Stretches – In a standing position, flex and extend your fingers, wrist, elbows, shoulders, neck, trunk and shoulder blades, hips, knees, ankles, feet and toes. Four repetitions on each joint, one set.
Neck Stretches – Laterally flex and extend your neck by lowering your left ear to your left shoulder and by lowering your right ear to your right shoulder. Flex and extend your neck by lowering your chin in to your chest then raising it as high as you can. Rotate your neck by turning your chin laterally towards your left shoulder then rotate it to your right shoulder. Ten repetitions on each stretch, one set.
Shoulder Circles – Whilst standing tall with your feet shoulder width apart with knees slightly bent, raise your right shoulder towards your right ear, and then take it backwards, down and then up to the ear again in a smooth action. Repeat with the other shoulder. Ten repetitions on each shoulder, one set.
Arm Swings – Whilst keeping the back straight and standing tall with feet slightly wider than shoulder width apart and knees slightly bent, swing both arms continuously above your head then forward, down and backwards. Then swing both arms sideways and then cross them in front of your chest. Ten repetitions, one set.
Side Bends – Stand tall, with your feet slightly wider than shoulder width apart, with your knees slightly bent and your hands resting on your hips. Lift your trunk up and away from your hips and bend to one side then the other. Avoid leaning forwards or backwards. Whilst leaning to the side breathe out, and then when you get to the centre breathe in. Ten repetitions on each side, one set.
Hip Circles & Twists – Circles – Whilst placing your hands on your hips with your feet spread wider than your shoulders, make circles with your hips in a clockwise direction, then counter clockwise. Twists – Extend your arms sideways and twist your torso and hips to the left, whilst shifting your weight to your left foot. Repeat on the right side. Ten repetitions on each, each exercise, one set.
Leg Swings – Flexion and Extension – Stand sideways on to a wall and then weight your left leg and you right hand on the wall for balance. Swing your right leg forwards and backwards. Change sides and repeat on the left leg. Ten repetitions on each leg, one set.
Ankle Bounce – Lean forward with your hands on the wall and your weight on your toes. Raise and lower both heels rapidly (a bouncing action) whilst keeping the ball of your feet on the ground.
Cool-down
A cool down in after physical activity is also very important. An effective cool down will:
- Help in the break down of waste products (such as lactic acid).
- Reduce the potential of DOMS (Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness). This is muscle soreness occurs approximately 24 to 48 hours after heavy exercise with eccentric contractions. The nerve endings of the muscle become irritated and produce swelling and local pain. However DOMS can also be an indicator of potential muscle growth.
- Reduce the potential of fainting due to blood pooling at the extremities, e.g. legs and arms.
- Reduce the level of adrenaline in the blood.
Gentle jogging, one lap around the sports hall.
Body stretches:
All stretches are held for ten seconds.
Chest Stretch - Stand tall, feet slightly wider than shoulder-width apart, knees slightly bent Hold you arms out to the side parallel with the ground and the palms of the hand facing forward Stretch the arms back as far as possible.
Biceps Stretch - Stand tall, feet slightly wider than shoulder-width apart, knees slightly bent. Hold your arms out to the side parallel with the ground and the palms of the hand facing forward. Rotate the hands so the palms face to the rear. Stretch the arms back as far as possible.
Upper Back Stretch - Stand tall, feet slightly wider than shoulder-width apart, knees slightly bent. Interlock your fingers and push your hands as far away from your chest as possible, allowing your upper back to relax.
Shoulder Stretch - Stand tall, feet slightly wider than shoulder-width apart, knees slightly bent. Place your right arm, parallel with the ground across the front of your chest. Bend the left arm up and use the left forearm to ease the right arm closer to you chest, repeat with the other arm.
Shoulder and Triceps Stretch - Stand tall, feet slightly wider than shoulder-width apart, knees slightly bent. Place both hands above your head and then slide both of your hands down the middle of your spine.
Side Bends - Stand tall, feet slightly wider than shoulder-width apart, knees slightly bent, hands resting on the hips. Bend slowly to one side; come back to the vertical position and then bend to the other side. Do not lean forwards or backwards.
Hamstring Stretch - Sit on the ground with both legs straight out in front of you. Bend the left leg and place the sole of the left foot alongside the knee of the right leg. Allow the left leg to lie relaxed on the ground. Bend forward keeping the back straight repeat with the other leg.
Calf Stretch - Stand tall with one leg in front of the other, hands flat and at shoulder height against a wall. Ease your back leg further away from the wall, keeping it straight and press the heel firmly into the floor. Keep your hips facing the wall and the rear leg and spine in a straight line repeat with the other leg.
Hip and Thigh Stretch - Stand tall with you feet approximately two shoulder widths apart. Turn the feet and face to the right and bend the right leg so that the right thigh is parallel with the ground and the right lower leg is vertical. Gradually lower the body whilst keeping your back straight and using the arms to balance. Repeat by turning and facing to the left.
Leg Adductor Stretch - Stand tall with you feet approximately two shoulder widths apart. Bend the right leg and lower the body whilst keeping your back straight and using the arms to balance. Repeat with the left leg.
Groin Stretch - Sit with tall posture. Ease both of your feet up towards your body and place the soles of your feet together, allowing your knees to come up and out to the side whilst resting your hands on your lower legs or ankles and ease both knees towards the ground.
Front of Trunk Stretch - Lie face down on the floor, fully outstretched. Bring your hands to the sides of your shoulders and ease your chest off the floor, keeping your hips firmly pressed into the ground.
Iliotibial Band Stretch – Whilst sitting tall with legs stretched out in front of you, bend the right knee and place the right foot on the ground to the left side of the left knee and then turn your shoulders so that you are facing to the right. Use your left arm against your right knee to help ease you further round and use your right arm on the floor for support.
Quadriceps Stretch - Lie face down on the floor, resting your forehead on your right hand. Press your hips firmly into the floor and bring your left foot up towards your buttocks. Take hold of the left foot with the left hand and ease the foot closer to your buttocks. Repeat with the right leg.
Training Programme
There are many factors I need to take in to consideration when planning my training programme. This includes types of training, the facilities I will have available to me and other personal factors.
Types Of Training
Weight Training – This is the use of free weight on dumbbells and bars, or the use of specially designed machines to improve strength. It allows the performer to closely mimic some of the actions involved in their sport. Weight training is suitable for strengthening muscles involved in specific actions such as kicking.
Circuit Training – This is when the performers own body weight is used on a number of exercises to improve strength. Stations are set up in an order and the performer goes to each station and performs a certain number of repetitions and sets of a specific exercise, e.g. press ups, sit ups, dips and running. After each station is completed, there is a brief recovery period. Circuit training is particular suitable for young children and for games players, because it allows them to practice different aspects of their game.
Intermittent (Interval) Training – This is where ‘work’ periods are interspersed with ‘rest’ periods to allow recovery. It is good for maintaining quality training (particularly in elite athletes).
Fartlek ‘speed play’ Training – This type of training is based on changes of speed. For example a performer would jog for 5 minutes. Then 5 minutes of fast walking or 50 metre sprints every 200 metres. The principle is that during a continuous run, periods of intense work overloads the systems but recovery is allowed in the slower periods. This training is suitable for activities such as running, cycling and skiing and is also good for athletes who need to change pace during their games.
Plyometrics – This involves working the muscles eccentrically then immediately concentrically by, for example, running down hill. It can dramatically improve muscle strength and is used mainly in sports, which require dynamic strength such as triple jumping.
Training Intensities
Heart rate training zones provide a window for the optimum percentage in which to train to gain particular physiological effects. These are very important and must also be considered when constructing and implementing my training program. The percentage calculated is a theoretical figure based on your maximum heart rate (220 minus your age). There are several training zones:
The Recovery Zone (60% to 70%) – Training within this zone develops basic endurance and aerobic capacity. It also allows you to burn fat whilst your muscles re-energise with glycogen stores, which may have been used up in more intense activity.
The Aerobic Zone (70% to 80%) – Training in this zone develops your cardiovascular system. This means that the ability of your body to transport oxygen to working muscles (and the ability to take carbon dioxide away from them) can be greatly improved.
The Anaerobic Zone (80% to 90%) – Training within this zone develops your lactic acid system. In this zone your anaerobic threshold is found (this can sometimes be referred to as the point of reflection – POD). During this zone the amount of fat used as the main source of energy is decreased rapidly and the glycogen stores in the muscles are mainly used, a by-product of this reaction is lactic acid. The anaerobic threshold occurs when the body is unable to remove lactic acid form the muscles. When the anaerobic threshold is reached, there is a significant rise in your heart rate (this occurs at different levels for each performer) and there is a slowing down of your running pace.
The Red Line Zone (90% to 100%) – Training within this zone trains your fast twitch muscle fibres and helps to develop speed. It is only possible to train in this zone for short amounts of time. This zone is usually reserved for interval running.
Principles Of Training
Within every training programme, the four principles of training should be taken in to consideration when it is being constructed and implemented:
Progressive Overload – The human body is designed to adapt to new demands that are made on it. Therefore if the body is put under more strain the body will respond by changing to meet the demands. This means that for example, if you gradually increase the load on your body, your body will adapt by increasing your muscle mass, making you stronger. It should be progressive (meaning that it is implemented over a period of time). Progressive overload is achieved by:
-
Increasing the number of times you train. Frequency.
-
Increasing the amount of work you do in a session. Intensity.
-
Increasing the length of time you train. Time
Often the acronym FIT is used to describe this.
Specificity – The type of fitness required by sports are different, therefore the training you do should reflect the demands of the sport. For example your training should:
- Mimic the type of movements required by that sport.
- Identify upon weak areas unique to you.
- Use the specific energy systems that are used within the sport.
Reversibility – If an athlete stops training, the effects from training will gradually be reduced over a period of time. This is roughly one third of the rate of acquisition. To counter the effects of reversibility, the athlete must make sure that they continue training regularly.
Variance - During training sessions, it is best to vary the activities being executed in order to prevent boredom. However the time it takes to become bored depends on the person.
Personal Factors
It is important to remember that whilst there are set guidelines on how to train, every performer is an individual. Therefore there are a number of personal factors I should take in to consideration when constructing and performing my training programme:
Gender – It has been proven that men are physiologically stronger than females. This is because their body to fat % ratio is lower than females, and that they have narrower hips which means they are able to transfer power more efficiently. Men also have a faster metabolism. However this is not to say that women are inferior sporting competitors.
Age – The younger you are, the more energy you have. This means that you may be able to cope with more intense activity than someone older than yourself. This is dependent on whether you have ‘peaked’ or not. For instance during puberty, your body is not as fully developed as for example a 20 year-old. This means that in certain stages in your life, weight training should be avoided.
Seasonal Factors – Seasonal factors can have an effect on the training facilities one is able to access. Generally during the winter months indoor training is more common as opposed to the summer months. Also the type and intensity of training depends on whether the athlete is pre-season, during the season or post-season. Often training leading up to the beginning of a competitive season will gradually increase in intensity, cumulating in a peak of performance roughly half-way through the season. After the season training is of less intensity.
My Training Program
After considering many factors I have decided to implement a mixture of weight training and plyometrics. This is because high jump is more of a technical sport, which requires dynamic strength over short periods of time rather than aerobic endurance. Therefore endurance training would be inappropriate.
Weight Training
Within the weight training aspect of my training programme I will be concentrating on improving the explosive strength in my legs. To do this I will be using the leg extension machine and the leg curler machine.
Leg Extensor machine – this machine involves contracting the quadriceps and hamstrings concentrically against a platform that is attached to a weight. This type of exercise is appropriate because it closely mimics the running action in high jump.
Leg Curler machine – this machine also involves contracting the quadriceps and hamstrings concentrically by bending the knees around a weight. This action mimics the bending of the knees in high jump.
Sit-ups – This will also form a part of my weight training. This involves lifting my own body weight up towards my knees simply by the rectus abdominis. This will allow me to strengthen these muscles, which will help me to remain tall when running during the run-up phase in high jump.
The speed component for high jumpers is concentrated more on impulse rather than flat-out speed. In terms of weight training, it is important that I select lesser loads, which are used to develop gross strength whilst making sure that they are high enough to develop my white twitch muscle fibres. This should be approximately 75% - 85% of the maximum weight used.
Plyometrics Training
These types of exercises will enable me to improve my elastic strength. I will use a mixture of bounding and jumping exercises. They all concentrate on improving vertical jumping:
Depth Jumping
- Stand on the box with your toes close to the front edge.
- Step from the box and drop to land on then balls of both feet.
- Whilst trying to anticipate the landing, spring up as quickly as you can keep contact time with the ground to a minimum.
Hurdle Bounding
- Jump forward over the hurdles with your feet together. The movement should come from your hips and knees.
- Whilst keeping your body vertical and straight, (and not letting your knees move apart or to either side) tuck both knees in to your chest.
- A double arm swing should be used to maintain balance and gain height.
- You should land on the balls of the feet, allowing energy to be stored by the elastic components of the leg muscles, and immediately take off again.
- The contact time between your feet and the ground should be kept to a minimum.
Bounds
- Jog into the start of the exercise.
- Push off with your right foot and bring the left leg forward, with the knee bent and the thigh parallel to the ground.
- At the same time, reach forward with your right arm. As the left leg comes through, extend the right leg back. It should remain extended for the duration of the push-off.
- Hold this extended stride for a brief time, and then land on your left foot.
- The right leg then drives through to a forward bent position, the left arm reaches forward, and the left leg extends backward
- Make each stride long, and try to cover as much distance as possible. You must also ensure that contact time between your feet and the ground is kept to a minimum.
I will have available to me a gym and a high jump area. I will have two sessions per week, with one being in the gym and one in the high jump area.
Week 1
Session 1 – Gym
- General warm up programme.
- 10 leg extensions × 2 sets, on level 4 (4kg). 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 10 leg curls × 2 sets, on level 4 (4kg). 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 5 sit-ups × 4 sets, with each set to be completed within 1 minute. 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- General cool-down programme.
Session 2 – High Jump Area
- General warm-up programme.
- 2 sets of depth jumps using 6 boxes measuring 20cm in height. 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 2 sets of hurdle jumps over 6 hurdles measuring 15 cm in height. 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 2 sets of bounds over 20 metres. 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- General cool-down programme.
Week 2
Session 1 – Gym
- General warm-up programme.
- 10 leg extensions × 3 sets on level 4 (4kg). 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 10 leg curls × 3 sets on level 4 (4kg). 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 5 sit-ups × 4 sets, with each set to be completed within 50 seconds. 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- General cool-down programme.
Session 2 – High Jump Area
- General warm-up programme.
- 3 sets of depth jumps using 6 boxes measuring 20cm in height. 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 3 sets of hurdle jumps of 6 hurdles measuring 15cm in height. 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 3 sets of bounds over 20 metres. 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- General cool-down programme.
Week 3
Session 1 – Gym
- General warm-up programme.
- 10 leg extensions × 4 sets on level 4 (4kg). 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 10 leg curls × 4 sets on level 4 (4kg). 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 5 sit-ups × 4 sets, with each set to be completed within 40 seconds. 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- General cool-down programme.
Session 2 – High Jump Area
- General warm-up programme.
- 4 sets of depth jumps using 6 boxes measuring 20cm in height. 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 4 sets of hurdle jumps of 6 hurdles measuring 15cm in height. 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 4 sets of bounds over 20 metres. 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- General cool-down programme.
Week 4
Session 1 – Gym
- General warm-up programme.
- 10 leg extensions × 5 sets on level 4 (4kg). 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 10 leg curls × 5 sets on level 4 (4kg). 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 5 sit-ups × 4 sets, with each set to be completed within 30 seconds. 1-minute recovery time between each set.
- General cool-down programme.
Session 2 – High Jump Area
- General warm-up programme.
- 5 sets of depth jumps using 6 boxes measuring 20cm in height. 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 5 sets of hurdle jumps of 6 hurdles measuring 15cm in height. 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- 5 sets of bounds over 20 metres. 1-minute recovery time between sets.
- General cool-down programme.
Although this is a set training programme, it can be altered if the need arises, e.g. injury or fatigue. I feel that this training programme takes in each of the principles of training and personal factors in to consideration:
Progressive overload – over the weeks I have increased the intensity of the work done in the gym and in the high jump session by increasing the number of sets whilst keeping the recovery time the same.
Specificity – I have kept the training programme specific to my goals by training my quadriceps and hamstrings and concentrating on elastic strength, which is a key demand of high jump. The plyometrics also closely mimic the jumping action of high jump.
Reversibility – I have tried to overcome this by organising the training sessions over a regular period of time.
Variance – there is a wide range of different exercises within my training programme, which should stop me from getting bored.
I also feel that I have taken other relevant factors in to consideration. The programme is of an appropriate intensity for someone of my age and gender. It also gradually increases in intensity, which is a good build-up towards the start of the athletics season (around May). This will enable me to build strength before the athletics season as opposed to during it. There is no need for me to record my heart rate before and after each session because I am not concentrating on aerobic or anaerobic training.
Safety Considerations
Whilst conducting this training programme, safety of those around me and myself will be of paramount importance. Before I commence the warm-ups and cool-downs, I will make sure that there is enough space around me to conduct them without hitting anyone. I will also make sure that there is enough space around me when conducting the plyometrics exercises, and that all equipment in the gym is safe and secure. If there is a malfunction then I will report it to a teacher before using the equipment.
Diary Entries
Week 1
The first session in the gym was tiring, this being due to the fact that it is the first time I have implemented the weight training. I had to increase the recovery time between sets of the sit-ups from 1 minute to 1.5 minutes, because my stomach muscles were aching. Apart from that everything was ok. Hopefully it will get better.
The first session of the plyometrics felt slightly better although my ankles and my left shinbone did feel strained. In the next training session I will increase the recovery time between sets.
Week 2
This session in the gym felt much better. I was able to cope with the extra intensity of the weight training, although I kept the increase in recovery time with the sit-ups.
The second session of the plyometrics was slightly more difficult to implement due to me feeling stiff (possibly DOMS). In the future I will make sure that I cool-down more effectively in other sessions before commencing another.
Week 3
This week the session felt much better. Although in the beginning it was difficult I am now starting to notice a marked improvement in the elastic strength of my legs. Also, the plyometrics starting to feel a lot easier.
Week 4
This week has not been as good because I have been ill. I was unable to do the session in the gym or the plyometrics because I was suffering from a heavy cold.
Post Test
Sergeant vertical jump test – This was disappointing, however my score has only decreased by 3.2 cm so I do not feel it was a significant decrease. It has decreased slightly due to a number of reasons, e.g. fatigue.
Standing long jump test – This result was very encouraging. My score increased by 47.7 cm, which is very high. I feel this is due to the leg extension work and the bounds work that I had been doing.
Sit-and-reach test – This result was very disappointing. My score decreased by 7.9 cm. I feel that this may be due to the fact that I increased in strength in my legs, which may have decreased the flexibility in my legs.
Evaluation
I believe that my training programme was effectively applied throughout the month that I executed it. However in the final week I was unable to do both sessions because I had the flu. However I still noticed a difference within the month. My legs generally felt stronger and more able to execute explosive power.
I also believe that my training programme effectively used the principles of training. The progression overload allowed me to increase the intensity of the training programme relevant to my aims without injuring myself. By increasing the weights I used gradually, I was able to build up my muscles by increasing the number of repetitions that I did.
Although the post-test results did not show a great increase, I do not feel that this was due to an inferior programme. I think it could have been due to the fact that I was recovering from the flu at the time and also that I only executed the programme over four weeks. Perhaps if I had executed it for longer, I would have better test results. In the future, I would improve this training programme by:
- Executing the programme for a longer period of time.
- Implementing more plyometrics and practice jumps on the high jump.
- Increasing the different types of weight training.
I enjoyed doing this training programme, and I feel that it could be very effective in the future. I will continue implementing this programme with a few changes.
Bibliography
http://www.sportinjury.net.
http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/
Morton D, Walters D, Jones Gillian, Baugniet N, A Level Physical Education through diagrams, Oxford University Press 2000.
