-Language difficulties.
-Lower level educational qualifications.
-Controversially associated with lower levels of intelligence.
-Attachment to traditional ways.
-Cultural values may predispose individuals to ‘follow in father’s/mother’s footsteps.
Elderly groups: -
-Less adaptable.
-Failure to make provision for retirement.
-Reluctance to claim benefit entitlements.
Working class groups: -
-A culture of dependency has produced an underclass, with an underclass, with a preference for immediate gratification.
-Patterns of consumption reflect immediate gratification values, rather than planning for future prosperity.
Life-course decisions, reflected in high incidence of single parent families, dilute family resources.
North Regions: -
-Unwillingness to move to jobs in south.
-Attachment to particular style of life.
-Regional pride.
Oscar Lewis (1961) carried out a study in which he observed peasant culture poor communities of Mexico and Puerto Rico. He found attitudes of fatalism, apathy, immediate gratification and failure to participate in institutional life. His theory also shows that this attitude is passed on through generations. The theory shows that poverty has a structure and a rationale, so that policy to alleviate poverty requires a systematic and integrated approach. Theory led to direct intervention strategies to improve the situation of those in poverty by altering their way of life.
Arguments directly against Lewis’s study come from the anthropologist, Mangrins (1968), who researched slums in Peru and found the poor were far from apathetic or resigned and also had remarkable organising powers.
Coates and Silburn (1970) studied a slum in Nottingham called St Annes. They did find helpless poor but they argued this was a consequence (see later explanations) and not a cause.
Rutter and Madge (1977) suggested there was “little documentation of my communities in this country which might correspond with the descriptions of a culture of poverty given by Lewis. Interestingly, Rutter and Madge did a separate study arguing there is a ‘Cycle of deprivation’.
A Situational perspective argues directly against this suggesting that poverty is due to a through no fault of their own but argue there are many social, economic and environmental factors which prevent poor from improving their position. It argues that behaviour is a reaction to this social situation but not a cause. This difference in situation means different norms and values from the rest of society. For example the elderly have insufficient resources during working life to make provision for retirement. Hannerz (from Haralambos), a Swedish anthropologist studied a black low-income area of Washington DC. He, (like Coates and Silburn in their study of Nottingham) found fatalistic behaviour but believed this was due to the way these constraints have moulded them.
Social democratic structural explanations argue poverty is due to inequality created by the labour market in capitalist economic systems. This means. The labour market excludes most groups in poverty (unemployed, retired, disabled) or leaves them in a weak position such as unskilled labour and also discriminates those of different races, disabled and so on. For example a shift in economic base of manufacturing to a service sector has left many unemployed in Northern regions. Pete Townsend (1979,1987) adopts a fairly Weberian view where he sees society divided in levels of power and status. The power going to those with the higher status meaning they can control the workforces lower down the scale. Townsend studied London where he saw a direct link between the inequalities in the labour market and those in poverty.
Marxist structural explanation of poverty agrees with social democratic structural explanations in that poverty is caused by a free-market capitalist system but argue a different solution. Instead of the poor relying on an improved welfare state they argue that the state should be overthrown altogether so poverty is totally abolished and instead production would be based on human needs and not profit.
Finally ‘Dependency Culture’ is a New Right idea, which is slightly similar to the individualistic theories stating poor are lazy and fatalistic but it goes further into the issue and suggests (like other theories) a reason. The reason being that people are poor because of their dependency on the state and that they are caught in a ‘dependency trap’ instead of just having ‘foolish’ behaviour. Marsland (1989) believes people are happier collecting money from benefits rather than working for similar amounts. He suggests that state provisions should be given to the needy poor instead of the idle. Murray (1990) USA and Anderson (1990) UK argue a new underclass is emerging due to welfare benefits
Individualistic theories (like most of the earliest theories), is rather simple. Indeed, it may be true that some, possibly the majority of those in poverty, have apathetical behaviours, but whether it answers the causes of poverty is questionable. The problem with this theory is that it does not give reasons for these lifestyles but rather looks at the direct causes of poverty.
Bibliography:
Sociology folder
Haralambos and Holborn - Sociology Themes and Perspectives
Paul Trowler - Investigating Health Welfare and Poverty
Revision Express - Sociology
