Aristotle was the main forefather of Virtue ethics. He is a very influential philosopher and was a great scholar. Aristotle's main work about morality is 'Nicomachean Ethics' which says how everyone wants a happy and fulfilled life, 'eudaimonia'. This word is a loose translation of the word happiness, however it goes a lot deeper than this. It involves both being happy and deserving it. 'A Good Life' or 'Good Living' might suffice better as a translation.
Aristotle believes that this is the highest good because it is a reward in itself and we desire it for its own sake. Something like justice may be desired because it leads to a good life.
Aristotle believes that living in a community along side people with due regard for their interests and for the development and education of society as a whole is the best and happiest way to live. Aristotle believed that the best way for people to reach 'eudaimonia' was for them to exercise and develop those qualities that are most productive in living in a community. Extremes of behaviour and character are unhelpful in a society, for example being too timid or too assertive is unhelpful. A 'golden mean' was the best was to live according to Aristotle. The extremes he called vices but in the middle was a virtue. A good example of a golden mean would be courage. At one end there is foolhardiness and at the other cowardice. So living in moderation is the most moral way to live. Once the agent has acquired the right virtues then virtuous behaviour is sure to follow. In this way, future generations can be taught goodness from those that have gone before. It is argued that we can learn more about being virtuous by following and watching someone virtuous than being taught a set of rules to follow. For example, someone might have been told 'be kind to others' but they will no know how to unless they have been shown.
Aristotle defines two types of virtues, intellectual and moral. We can be taught intellectual behaviour such as foreign languages but we learn moral virtues by living them. Virtue is something we acquire rather than being born with it according to Aristotle. This can be likened to a craftsman who learns by watching others and practising himself. Also the right actions have to be done with the right motives.
The revival of virtue ethics was mainly due to the release of Elizabeth Anscombe's article 'Modern Moral Philosophy'. It claimed that the concept of moral rules and moral obligation is flawed. She criticised utilitarianism and Kant, which both set out principles for people to follow rather than looking at a person's character. She argued that the idea that we have a moral obligation to someone doesn’t make sense unless the whole community believe in God. Even if his is looked at in a non-religious way, the theory still doesn’t work unless there is someone (like a judge) there to reward or punish good or bad acts and this doesn’t happen because there is no absolute lawgiver. For Anscombe, the way forward is to receive the theory of 'eudaimonia', which does not depend on the presence of God.
Philippa Foot also criticised other forms of ethics. She even went as far to say that although virtue cannot guarantee happiness it can often be an important part of achieving it. She also looks a whether a person who is virtuous by nature should be more respected than a person who has to strive to become virtuous.
Alasdair MacIntyre and Richard Taylor are two modern philosophers who have continued promoting virtue ethics. They have taken Aristotle's theory and attempted to form a system which meets the objections of its criticisms. MacIntryre claims that moral philosophy and any kind of philosophy is quite far removed from ordinary life. He claims that it is not enough for philosophers to spend time debating ethical language and forming reasoned theories of moralities in a way which is far removed from peoples lives. Someone who is in a moral dilemma, for example his or her child has just been killed, isn’t going to care what the word 'bad' means. MacIntyre looks at Virtues throughout history to see how people coped with their moral problems, both as individuals and as a community.
Richard Taylor writes about how ethics of western civilisations have been distorted by Christianity. By insisting in the need for faith and blind obedience religion has led people away from reason. Taylor also criticises Christianity because it treats everyone equally which discourages people to strive to become greater. There is no point in being strong and noble is ignorant, weak people will be treated in exactly the same manor after death. For Taylor, virtue ethics is a long overdue return to a system which has far more to offer the individual than Christianity.
There are many problems with virtue ethics. Firstly for some virtues there are no midpoints; like for promise keeping or compassion. And for others it is hard to define where the midpoint is. Virtues also differ from society to society so it is hard to define what is virtuous in different places, jobs etc. Also, sometimes virtue ethics is of little use to someone who is in a moral dilemma. Some people say that morals cannot be separated altogether from rules so without rules we would not know whether a characteristic was to be judged as a virtue. Some people might say that virtue ethics is a selfish way of life; it concentrates on putting yourself first and choosing an action that is most beneficial to you. Also, a virtuous person cannot just be virtuous; they have to do the right thing at the right time, like saving a child from a fire. This act however can be done by an un-virtuous person and similarly, a virtuous person might not do anything.
So in conclusion, virtue ethics looks at a person's character rather than a persons actions. If you are a moral person you are likely to do virtuous acts.
