Small intestine is five meter long and is where most digestion takes place. Small intestine produces the protease, amylase and lipase enzymes. This is also where food absorbed into the blood. Small intestine is long and folded to increase the surface area. Tiny finger like things called villi cover the inner surface to increase the surface area even more. They increase surface area to digest food so that digested food is absorbed much quickly into the blood. Villi has single layer of cells.
Any food that has not been digested passes into large intestine where water is absorbed from food. The content of the large intestine take about 12 to 24 hours to pass through the rectum for excretion.
In the digestive system there are other parts of the body that help us as well like liver. Liver is place where bile is produced. Bile makes condition right for the enzymes in the small intestine. Gall bladder is where bile is stored, before it’s injected into small intestine. Pancreas produces the lot amylase, lipase and the protease.
There are only three main digestive enzymes, which break down big molecules into smaller ones.
Starch, protein and fats are big molecules, which can’t pass through cell walls into the blood.
Sugar, amino acid and fatty acids, glycerol is much smaller molecules which can pass easily into the blood.
- Amylase converts starch into simple sugars
- Protease converts protein into amino acid
- Lipase converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol
Reproductive System
The male reproductive system:
The testes are the male sex organ. They produce the male sperm. The testes also make the male hormone testosterone. This starts to happen between 11 and 16 years.
Testosterone brings about the changes in a boy’s body as he stars to develop into an adult. For instance the voice deepens and hair grows on the face and body.
The testes are inside a sac called the scrotum, which hangs outside the body. This keeps them ay a cooler temperature. Sperms only develop properly in this condition.
Sperms are produced all the time. They are stored in small tubes outside the testes. They pass along a much bigger tube called the sperm tube.
Glands add a fluid, which keeps the sperm alive. The sperm and the fluid are called semen.
The sperm and the fluid are called urethra. This runs down the centre of the penis. This happens when blood is pumped into special spongy tissue in the penis.
During an ejaculation semen is pumped out of the penis. This is due to the contraction of the muscles around the sperm tubes and urethra.
Each ejaculation makes about a teaspoon of semen but this can contain 500 million sperms. The urethra also carries urine out of the body from the bladder. But urine and semen never pass down the urethra at the same time.
The female reproductive system:
The ovaries also make the female hormones oestrogen and progesterone .This starts to happen between 10 and 15 years. Oestrogen brings about the changes in girl’s body as she starts to develop into an adult. For instance, the breasts develop and periods start. Progesterone prepares the womb so that it could receive a fertilised egg, if the girl was pregnant. The ovaries are attached to the inside of the abdomen just below the kidneys.
An egg is released about 28 days. The egg passes out of the ovary and into the funnel-shaped opening of the oviduct. This is called ovulation. The egg moves slowly down the oviduct towards the uterus (womb) if the sperms are present in the oviduct the egg will be fertilised. If the egg is not fertilised it will die after about a day.
If the egg is fertilised it will attach itself to the lining of the uterus and develop into a baby. The lower end of the uterus has a ring of muscle called the vagina that opens to the outside of the body. Above the opening of the vagina is the urethra opening.
Urine passes out of the urethra. Above the urethra is the sensitive clitoris. The outer opening of the vagina is called the vulva.
Nervous system
The nervous system controls our actions. It coordinates different parts of our body so that they work together and are able to bring about the correct responses.
The nervous system coordinates our muscles, so that we can talk, write read and do exercise. When we smile, the nervous system coordinates the muscles of the face.
Our nervous system also coordinates thing that we don’t even think out, like swallowing, blinking or breathing.
The main parts of the nervous system are the brain and the spinal cord. Together they are called central nervous system. They are both made of delicate nervous tissue. The brain is protected inside the skull. The spinal cord is protected inside our backbone.
The central nervous system is connected to different parts of the body by nerves. Each nerve is made up of lots of nerve cells or neurones. Neurones transmit electrical impulses very quickly around the body. Muscles and glands are our effectors. The central nervous system sends message telling them what to do. These messages are sent along motor neurones.
Sense organs are our receptors. They send messages to t6he central nervous system telling it what has happened. These messages are sent along sensory neurones.
We have five sense organs. They are eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin.
These five different sense organs all contain different receptors. Receptors are groups of cells which are sensitive to stimulates such as light or heat.
- The stimuli of eyes are light receptors
- The stimuli of ears are sounds and balance receptors
- The stimuli of nose is smell and taste receptors
- The stimuli of tongue is taste receptors (bitter, salt, sweet and sour)
- The stimuli skin is touch, pressure and temperature receptors
Receptors are cells that turn energy into electrical impulses.
Musculoskeletal
The musculoskeletal system consists of the skeletal system, bones and joints.
Our skeleton is made up of more than 200 bones. Our skeleton has four main functions:
- Support: it holds us upright and provides a framework for tissues and organs.
- Protection: the heart and lungs are protected by the rib cage.
- Movements: takes place when muscles more bones at joints.
- Making blood cells: red and white blood cells are made inside the bone marrow.
There are five basic tissues comprising the musculoskeletal system:
- bones
- ligaments (attaching bone to bone)
- cartilage (protective gel-like substance lining the joints and intervertebral discs)
- skeletal muscles
- tendons (attaching muscle to bone)
Our back bone is made up of 33 separated bones called vertebrae. They have joints between them so we can bend and twist. Our vertebrae are supported by strong muscles. Each vertebra is hollow inside the space is the spinal cord.
The surrounding bone of the vertebrae protects the soft tissue of the spinal cord.
Joints occur when two bones meet. Joints allow movement to take place. Most movement occur at synovital joints. Movement at these joints could cause friction. A synovital joints is built to cut down friction.
The ends of the bones are covered with cartilage. This stops two bones rubbing together. The synovital membrane encloses synovital fluid. These lubricate or oil the joints and makes movement easy. The bones are held together at a joint by tough ligaments.
Muscles are connected to the bones by tendons. When muscles work, they pull on tendons and more the bond.
We have over 350 muscles in our body without our muscles we can’t move.
Our muscles provided the force to pull or to squeeze things. Voluntary muscle is one of the three main muscles in our body.
They are attached to bones by tendons. They bring about movement at joints. These muscles can be controlled at will. If we decide to lift our hand up, muscles in our arm contract. This pulls on the tendon which pulls up the lower arm bone. Voluntary muscles are powerful. They can contract quickly but soon get tired.
Task 2:
The interrelationship between the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.
The respiratory system works with the circulatory system together to supply all the cells and tissues of the body with oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide.
This involves four separate processes:
- Breathing (pulmonary ventilation)
- The exchange of gasses between the lungs and the blood (pulmonary diffusion).
- Transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide via the blood
- Exchange of gases between the capillary blood and the tissues of the body.
A + B are referred to as external respiration.
C + D are known as the internal respiration. Both external and internal respiration are linked to the circulatory system.
There are two blood circulations in the body:
1) The pulmonary circulation, from the right ventricle of the heart, and from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart.
2) The circulation system from the left ventricle of the heart and from the lungs to the right atrium of the heart.
The right side of the heart pumps blood around the pulmonary system to be oxygenated and the left side of the heart pumps the oxygenated blood to all parts of the body, and deoxygenated blood back to the right atrium of the heart.
The pulmonary artery brings deoxygenated blood from the heart’s right pump, this divides into two branches, one for each lung. Just as the bronchial tree divides into ever smaller branches (alveoli) the artery divides many times into arterioles until the vessels become capillaries. A whole network of these pulmonary capillaries surrounds each alveolus.
The interface where gas exchange takes place is very thin indeed. Each alveolus has a wall that is only one cell thick, likewise the walls of the capillaries are also only one cell thick. The distance between air and blood is about one thousandth of a millimetre.
Oxygen travels in the blood via the red blood cells, this travel in single file through the pulmonary capillaries. Red blood cells are packed with haemoglobin, the blood’s red pigment, this act as a magnet for the oxygen.
As oxygen gets on to the haemoglobin, it is converted to ox haemoglobin, which is a much bright redder colour, this way the blood is transformed from its dark red-blue de-oxygenated state.
To complete the gas exchange, carbon dioxide leaves the blood through the capillary and alveolar walls.
The pulmonary capillaries reconnect to become larger and larger vessels called the pulmonary veins and these return blood to the heart.
The Respiratory system goes through a system where oxygen enters the blood stream and Carbon Dioxide leaves the blood to enter the air.
The Respiratory system consists of these things:
Nose, Nasal cavity, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi and Lungs.
The Cardiovascular system transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body and Carbon Dioxide from the cells of the body to the lungs.
The Cardiovascular system consists of these things:
The Heart, Blood vessels
The Respiratory system and cardiovascular system are basic to life and breathing, without both functioning normally, you will die.
The Heart pumps oxygen into the blood and collects carbon dioxide from it to be expelled through the lungs. The Respiratory and Cardiovascular systems work together to supply oxygen to the cells, to remove Carbon Dioxide, and to arrange pH of the body fluids.
Task 3:
It’s always important to notice any changes in clients. The observation that I have made to monitor a healthy client are as follows.
Hair:
When the hair is brittle and dry, hair disorder such as hypothyroidism or malnutrition happens.
Infection with head causes itching, which leads to scratching and scratching can lead to impetigo and dermatitis.
Eyes:
Conditions like eye disorders, disease and injuries happen when eyes become red, watering, infected or swollen. All need treatment to prevent damage.
A white ring is often visible on the outer edge of the iris. Cataracts are painless but affect the ability to see. They appear as a white opacity where the blackness of the pupil used to be.
Many eye conditions can have negative effect on other body systems as well.
Mouth:
The most common problem in the mouth is infections and ulcers. Thrush such as fungal infection, which can be treated by putting cream-coloured patches on the lining of the mouth, is common in young and old people, in people taking antibiotics and in those who taking drugs to support the immune system after organ transplants.
Fingernails:
The sign of stress or nervousness is when fingernails are bitten. Having white spots on fingernails is due to lack of calcium.
Posture:
The client’s posture while walking, standing or sitting can be observed quickly. The way client sits or stand can send messages. A person’s posture is affected by pain, muscle and bone disorders, conditions of joints and any disorder of the nervous system.
Skin:
It is important to have a healthy skin but not always all the people have healthy skin. There are some causes that make skin unhealthy such as dry skin. This might be because of age or hypothyroidism, for example. It may be wet, infected and spotty.
When we have poor oxygenation of blood, capillaries run close to the surface and this occurs cyanosis, which is most commonly seen in lips, tongue and nails.
Also there are several causes such as having heart and lung disorders.
Is the skin is red, hot swollen and painful we should look for wounds or breaks in the surface of the skin and clean these with antiseptic lotion and cover it with a sterile dressing.
Task 4:
There are a number of different physical body measurements that can be taken to find out about a person’s state of health.
The measurements that I have chosen for my chosen person are as follows.
Height and weight:
These charts show whether my chosen person is the right weight for her height. To find out what band on the chart she fits into I marked her weight on the vertical line and her height on the horizontal line. Then I used a ruler to draw a line up and across and mark where they meet. Then I could fine whether she is correct weight for her height or under or overweight.
Body mass index:
A body weight calculator is normally based on body mass index. Body mass index is a number created from a calculation of weight and height.
To calculate my chosen person BMI, I used the following formula:
Mass divided by height squared. Mass measured in kilograms, and height in meters.
Weight (Kg) Kilograms
Height (M) 2 metres x metres
63 63 22.3214286 22.3
1.63x1.63 2.8224
Body temperature:
As we all know 37C is normal body temperature. The accepted normal range of temperature is from 36.5C to 37.2C, depending where it is measured the mouth, armpit or rectum and also on the subject’s activities including exercise, sleep, eating and drinking. The other thing, which is also influences body temperature, is the time of the day.
Temperatures are lowest around 3 am and during sleep. They are highest after exercise and after taking hot food or drink.
A temperature higher than 37C in the mouth or 37.7C in the rectum is usually shows as a fever or viral infection. Temperatures lower than 35C result in the condition known as hypothermia. This is a serious medical condition which leads to lowered heart and breathing rate, lowered consciousness and even death.
I put the thermostat on my client’s forehead to measure her body temperature. Her body temperature is 37C, which is normal.
Peak Flow:
To measure peak flow I need a meter, which the maximum speed at which air can flow out of the lungs. The measurement is used to assess the width of the air passage (bronchi). To have accurate reading I took 3 measurements on my client to work out the average reading. The average reading is 536, which is normal.
Resting pulse rate and recovery after exercise:
Pulse rate shows how fast the heart beats. By checking my client’s pulse rate I can find out whether she is fit or not. Also to find out is her heart’s beats normal? I counted by lightly pressing two fingers below the base of thumb of my client until I felt the throbbing. I counted the beats in one minute. My client’s pulse rate when she was sitting down calm and quite was 65 beats in one minute.
Then I asked her to walking up and down the stairs. Then I took the measurement immediately after her exercise was 83. It took her 40 seconds to get back to normal beats.
My client’s pulse rate for one minute and after exercise and also the time it took to get back to normal was all normal.
Task 5:
The care a client receives influence the way that body system would be like.
The body systems that I have chosen to describe and explain and link it to the care that my client receives is digestive and cardiovascular systems.
There are several ways that I can help my client to have healthy digestive system.
I should choose foods that are easy to digest for my client. Specially if my clients old or is child. I can do this by using foods like soup, which is soft or chop food, where need it.
I should make sure that my client eats five portions of fruit and vegetable. This is also good for having healthy skin and nails.
Having healthy and right amount of food would affect both cardiovascular and digestive system. Having a lot amount of food would effect digestive system my making digestive system’s work harder to digest food.
It also has negative effect on cardiovascular system. Because having too much fat increase the risk of getting high cholesterol disease. This is happening when there are too much fat in the blood, which build up in the wall of the arteries and overtime this causes hardening of the arteries so that arteries become narrowed and blood flow to the heart is slow down or blocked. The blood caries oxygen to the heart and, if enough blood and oxygen can not reach the heart, it would become as a chest pain, if the blood supply to the heart becomes completely cut off by blockage, this would result in a heart attack.
I should make sure that my client’s diet has nutrient and fibre in it. The nutrients include proteins, which is good for growth and repair. Fats are good for energy and warmth. Carbohydrates give energy. vitamins and minerals, which are good to protect the body and keep it healthy.
There are two other substances that are important in the diet although they are not nutrients. These are dietary fibre and water. It’s absolutely important to drink 8 glass of water every day. Water helps skin not to become dry and dehydrated.
I also need to make sure about food hygiene to prevent my client from having any illnesses such as food poisoning.
I need to check that my client has regular bowel habits (3 times a day) also to notice changes in bowel habit. If my client wouldn’t has regular bowel habit this means that my client has constipation. And having constipation means that my client’s digestive system is not working properly and is not digesting (braking down) food. This is may be due to not having the right temperature for PH to make enzymes.
I need to check my client’s weight to make sure that she has a right weight for her height. It’s always important to have the right weight for the right height.
I need to make sure that my client receiving the right medicine and also to make sure that my client takes her tablets in the right time.
Task6:
The care client receive could be improved in many ways to have beneficial effects on a system of the body without having any harmful effects on another body system.
An example would be improving my client’s diet. By making sure that my client has a right portion of fruit and vegetables, potatoes and other cereals, fish and meat and dairy products.
If my client doesn’t receive the right amount of food this would have bad effect on her weight. If she takes less food as her body needs, she would lose weight and if she takes more than she needs she would become overweight.
Also having unhealthy and unbalanced diet by eating too much fat foods like fast foods could lead to having high cholesterol level. Having high cholesterol also has the risk of getting heart attack. So by having healthy and balance food my client would have better digestive and cardiovascular system without having any chance of getting disease.
Exercise is good for body especially for lungs because it makes them to work properly and to take in more oxygen and to take out more carbon dioxide. Taking exercise is better if my client exercises in the fresh air. Exercise is not just good for body is also good for losing weight. It’s also is good for body muscles. It causes development of heart and skeletal muscles. Exercise would make use of muscles. Physical activity is necessary to stimulate the body’s own bones, joints and muscles, especially her heart will actually stay younger if she keeps them busy.
Lack of exercise makes the bowel doesn’t work properly, which leads to constipation and her cause weight not become under control.
