A-Level Sociology Theory + Methods Revision.
Chris Swinton - The University Of Hull
A-Level Theory + Methods Revision
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY
. Sociological Analysis - focus here is on social structures or systems sometimes phrased a MACRO or big worldview.
Structuralist: - Positivist methodology aimed at being objective + uncovering causal laws. Based on EMPIRICISM i.e. hard data, which proves the theory true.
Reliable - Replicable - Based on influence of external forces.
Functionalist Marxist Weber as a conflict?
Structuralist - mainly in topic stratification -->
Giddens' Structuration Theory 1979 - Post Modernism --> Radical ? of +ism, a diverse range of perspectives should be accepted.
2. Individual In Society - focus on the methods, meanings, beliefs + motives of the person * MICRO approach i.e. the reality of 1 person in the day-to-day situation = critical.
Interpretivist - How social actors actively make their own social reality - diff to inanimate objects in natural sciences i.e. "Thinking feeling reflexive beings" Methodology is small scale yet in detail there4 high in validity. Backed up by QUALITATIVE DATA i.e. rich in description of words.
Weber's PHENOMENOLOGY ETHNOMETHODOLOGY Symbolic
S.A.T. from philosophy charting Practical experiments to Interactionist
base of meaning. show where commonsense
"How you know what you know" meaning lies
FUNCTIONalist
--> Every part of society or social institution has a function or distinct role in contributing to the well-being + maintenance of society e.g. FAMILY - primary socialisation.
Education - Role allocation, important core values + individual incentives to work.
KEY PHRASES - "Everything works together for the good of the whole". "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts" - ORGANIC ANALOGY.
--> Reifying an abstract concept into concrete properties, in this case the human body, where each organ has a distinct function, BUT they work in tandem with each other.
The system is self-righting i.e. maintains a sense of balance + equilibrium (HOMEOSTASIS) e.g. when body temp ? you begin to sweat
Funct's believe the problem in the soc. sys = S.P.F.'s --> Education needed. More SexEd so people know what they are going to have to do if they have a child --> Tax credit from govt. More support for 2 PFs. --> C.S.A. - Fathers have to pay for their children --> Govt. have frozen the s.p. tax credit at £5.75
List of important functionalist terms: - Positive, conservative, harmony, co-op, integration, continuity, inter-dependant.
It is seen as a CONSENSUS perspective. within the structuralist view. It is diametrically opposed to Marxism which is called CONFLICT view.
DURKHEIM - Col. Con, Organic Solidarity, Social Facts, Mechanic Solidarity, Anomie, Division Of Labour
Organic Solidarity - People = socialised into a variety of cultures growing up in widely different envts. There's a degree of job specialisation + it is this specialism which keeps the solidarity of the soc. People in modern societies depend on each other for their survival; soc. is linked up in an interdependent system of parts - Hence the organic analogy.
Mechanic Solidarity - People are alike as they share norms + values. Roles may be differentiated by age or sex, but there is very little job specialisation. Thus, the solidarity of the community is maintained by the "sameness" of everyone; everyone is socialised into a similar culture.
In primitive societies there is a form of "mechanical solidarity" at work. Society functions as a relatively close-knit affair. As society becomes more complex, through the "division of labour", mechanical solidarity breaks down + is replaced by organic solidarity.
Social Facts - belief systems, customs + institutions of society - the facts of the soc. world - should be considered on things in the same way as objects + events in the natural world.
Structural Functionalism - Key proponent = Talcott Parsons 1940s - 50's = heyday.
* Value Consensus - passing down core values of society. These form the basic integrating principle. People share a common ethos + identity which provides for unity + co-operation.
* Social Equilibrium - when values are institutional + behaviour is structured in terms of these values E.g. SPF the result of these initiatives is a self-regulating system + social stability. Two ways of achieving this equilibrium = Socialisation + Soc. Control - punishment for those who fail to update society's values.
* Functional Prerequisites - basic things that soc. needs to be met if it is to survive. All societies no matter the size have 4 functional imperatives. These 4 factors can be summarised as an acronym. -
G - Goal Attainment - set goals towards a directional activity (Politics)
A - Adaptation - Relationship bet. sys + its environment. (Economy)
I - Integration - adjustment of conflict (Low)
L - Latency (Pattern Maintenance) - ensuring communal values are maintained. Crucial role of
family, education + Religion
N.B. Parsons - an economist tended to say ADAPTATION is most imp there4 sometimes - AGIL
Robert Merton - distinguished bet. "Manifest" + "Latent" functions. He said that People are to a great extent conscious + aware of the purposes of many activities.
Manifest = functions which are both intended + recognised e.g. learning
Latent = those which are neither intended nor recognised e.g. schools provide "baby-sitting" service so more people are available for employment.
Criticisms Of Functionalism
* There views emphasise the significance of the social structures of behaviour. They don't take account of the person's motives in action.
* It is hard to know what all the functions of a social institution are + which are most essential.
* It can't be assumed that something functional for 1 group is functional for everyone else.
* It may be difficult to see how all institutions are related; e.g. marriage + political system.
Strengths Of Functionalism
* It is a perspective. that is concerned w/ order + directs attention to agencies which help to promote it.
* It is preoccupied w/ discovering the positive functions of institutions which will benefit the smooth running of society.
* The argument that certain arrangements in soc. are functional + beneficial leads to arguments against radical change. It focuses on institutions which need protection when under threat (e.g. marriage, family etc)
Malinowski - Biological Functionalism - purpose of society = satisfaction of biological needs of human beings
Parsons - Normative Function - maintenance of order + equilibrium is largely achieved by the existence of common values or norms, shared by the vast majority of the people in society.
MARXISM - Classical theory
Stems from Karl Marx - Sociology, Economics + Politics
Backed up by his compatriot - Fredich Engels who was more dominant in areas like "the family".
Marx specifies distinct stages of epochs
. ASIATIC "primitive communism"
2. ANCIENT - Slavery "masters + slaves"
3. FEUDAL - "Landlords + surfs"
4. CAPITALISM - Bourgeoisie + Proletariat - Proletariat Revolution - workers at this stage will have attained "CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS"
5. FUTURE/ADVANCED COMMUNISM - "From each according to ability to each according to need.
Four + Five are the most important.
CONFLICT perspective = Competing interests of 2 classes in each historical period. Conflict stems from a person's position in the means of production i.e. whether they are a worker or an owner. There is conflict over scarce resources i.e. money, wealth, working conditions, bonuses, pay rate --> The capitalist bourgeoisie wants to retain the most profit + the proletariat wants better pay + working conditions.
In this process there is EXPLOITATION or surplus value (putting the profit from the workers into the capitalist product)
This notion of conflict from opposing forces comes from the philosopher HEGEL, who termed it DIALECTIC + is an expression of conflict between ideas.
Formula = Thesis + Antithesis = Asynthesis. * Marx saw this idea of the dialectic as a dynamic which shapes the soc. you live in + causes change from one epoch to another. Instead of a clash of intellectual ideas, it is a clash of interests from different economic forces. = --> This is known as an ECONOMIC DETERMINIST or DIALECTICAL DETERMINISM.
(Thesis) Bourgeoisie Dominance + (Antithesis) Proletariat Revolution - Discontent of workers inc. revolutionary tendencies = (Synthesis) Future or Advanced Communism.
Conflict engenders social change through revolutions. Society moves from 1 stage to another.
To have a full proletariat revolution the W.C. would have to attain class-consciousness --> a point at which they would become radicalised, revolutionary + militant.
Objective - "Class in themselves" - recognise with other workers in society that you have a common position in the production process i.e. non-owners, wage slaves.
Subjective - "Class FOR themselves" - being prepared to join together with common interests. This 2nd 1/2 is blocked! ? in Trade Unions - different lifestyles you can identify with - Postmodernism.
False CC has been used by Neo-Marxists, to illustrate the way in which people ascribe to class they AREN'T in! FCC = particularly acquired through ideological channels = consumer fetishism.
Marx believed the Bourgeoisie impose their definitions of how society should be on the Proletariat e.g. class, opportunities and ideology.
POWER = A ruling class can impose their social arrangement
Possible Strengths Of Marxism
. It forces us to look critically at structures + institutions which may otherwise be taken for granted.
2. It is a perspective that concentrates on sources of conflict + may encourage social change to redeem major inequalities.
3. It provides an alternative view to the functionalist justification of status quo
Criticisms Of Marxism
. Marxism sees a conspiracy at every level of organisation in a capitalist soc. so that exploitation can continue.
2. Excessive reference to ideology may make arguments presented less acceptable + encourage a belief in the bias of the researchers.
3. Functionalists claim that Marx overestimated the degree of conflict in society therefore underplaying social integration + consensus --> A Neo-Marxist would come back at this statement claiming that people are in a state of "False CC" + cant' see the reality of the situation.
A key feature in this process is the role of ideology in passing on norms + values.
4. Interpretivist theories would claim Marxists underplay the role of social actors. In classical Marxism the emphasis is given to a person's thoughts, meanings + actions. The economic environment shapes the person + they have little choice in the matter. Humanitarian Marxism - Gramsci on alternative/popular hegemony in response to the state. Hegemony - Rule by consent. "Best Thing For You". Alt/pop going against Heg = Heg - War! Alt/pop - No war.
The other angle of Marxism that has developed in modern society is known as Structural Marxism. --> This sees class conflict as inevitable + largely perpetuated by the superstructure. I.e. ideology is used to justify certain beliefs, which prevent changes to the system.
Traditional Continuum of Sociological Theory
Marx + Functionalism Weber - S.I. Ethnomethodology
= Emphasis on "Structure" = Creative + Interpretive. Nature of soc action
Anthony Giddens = Structuration Theory
Key Concept = Duality Of Structure: - i.e. structure production by social action; similarly social action maintains structure overtime. E.g. language metaphor as used in work of "Sassure". Structure of language provides rules for communication. However language only exists b/c people use it when they write + speak. Action can also influence structure. E.g. new words/grammatical rules.
Rules - Regulatory principles which influence action e.g. driving a car.
Resources Allocative - Akin to Marx's forces of production.
Authoritative - distribution of social power.
YET - Much action depends upon shared common-sense knowledge, which is applied with little conscious. Thus agents draw a knowledge of rules + use available resources to accomplish goals. Humans have a desire for predictability in their social life - antolological security, which produces stability + persistence rather than social change. Unlike structuralist writers Giddens acknowledges that actors don't merely react to external stimuli but engage in reflexive monitoring of action through this reflection of their actions + consequences they have the ability to choose a new course of action.
Criticisms of Structuration Theory
* Margaret S. Archer - It fails to give sufficient attention to how social structures affect the individual's power to change things. Actor's can't simply change the would as they wish! Esp. relevant in a soc. where a dictatorship/regime is in force - e.g. Talliban in Afghanistan.
* Ian Craib - From the angle of psychology, he questions Giddens' use of the concept of "antological security" --> confused account of personality, a clear misunderstanding of psychoanalytic theory. V. simplified picture of a person's make up; more than just routine + predictability.
Paul Willis "Learning To Labour" 1977 - E.g. of Structuration Theory. Useful pay offs methodologically -->
* Unstructured Interviews
* Ethnography --> observing people in natural habitat
* Methodological Pluralism - more than 1 method involved.
* Toolbox approach - picking a method that is ...
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* Ian Craib - From the angle of psychology, he questions Giddens' use of the concept of "antological security" --> confused account of personality, a clear misunderstanding of psychoanalytic theory. V. simplified picture of a person's make up; more than just routine + predictability.
Paul Willis "Learning To Labour" 1977 - E.g. of Structuration Theory. Useful pay offs methodologically -->
* Unstructured Interviews
* Ethnography --> observing people in natural habitat
* Methodological Pluralism - more than 1 method involved.
* Toolbox approach - picking a method that is appropriate to the group under study - Particularly important given that he is a Marxist + employing Interpretivist methodology to reach his aims.
His study was about how WC kids get WC jobs. Marxist theoretical stance says, "reproduction of labour power". Yet also combines Interactionist insights i.e. how small-scale interaction of the "lads" is related to wider social structure. The study employs methods usually attributed to Interpretivist perspective.
Methodology: - Sample of 12 lads in Birmingham. Employs detailed observation (Ethnography) across a range of different situations i.e. in class, around school, during leisure activities etc. He also tape-recorded unstructured interviews some taking the form of group discussions.
Key Points -
* "Lads" rejected the school crating their own counter-school culture. I.e. opposed to M.C. values + goals of the school, authority of teachers + conformist pupils "ear'oles".
* "Lads" saw conformist behaviour of "ear'oles" as a source of mockery + amusement. School in their eyes was good for a "laugh".
* Similarity bet. attitudes + behaviour of counter-culture + shop floor at work. I.e. having a laugh, a way of dealing with boredom, monotony + authority. Important to have a bunch of mates to mess around with in a "them + us" situation.
* Correspondence bet. school + work NOT produced directly by the school (unlike Bowles + Gintis). It is produced by the "lads" themselves in their counter-culture + rejection of school. Paradoxically this prepares them for low skilled, low status manual jobs.
The Value Freedom Debate
Sociologist's values + beliefs ultimately determine the way in which they view the world. I.e. functionalism + its emphasis on co-operation + integration Vs. Marxism + its emphasis on class conflict --> relate to Gouldner on "domain assumptions".
Positivists believe in value free socio - Letting the facts speak for themselves - objectivity empirical data stands the test of time and be confirmed against social facts/ empirical data --> position advocated by a) Durkheim + b) Marx
a) Attempted to find principles. For an ordered/integrated society.
b) N.B. Political ideas evident in his work! The purpose of studying society is to change it.
Doubt whether scientists operate in this way i.e. objection to dropping of the Atom Bomb in WW2.
Weber agrees with D+M to a certain extent. He is more realistic and realises that a value towards an activity needs to be established first. Once data collection starts results can speak for themselves.
From results stage this is known as value neutrality. In the first stage value interpretation, involves choosing a topic, setting hypothesis and deciding on method. Against value-judgement in latter stage. Ought not to state a conclusion or a preferred course of action. Your analysis of results might not reveal this ultimate truth --> Others could fund alternative versions.
Weber's fear of bureaucracy is evident in his writing.
There is a strong overlap with sociology as a science.
Value-freedom in Sociology
* Positivism is based on the principle of scientific objectivity
* It is possible to study some social features without allowing own values, moral beliefs or ideological preferences to influence the work in anyway.
* It is possible to ascertain "true facts" about the social world.
* Sociologists can see the world from the point of groups/people - PO. So this kind of study must be Value Free.
Sociology Isn't Value Free
* Sociologists have values like everyone else. This is bound to influence them.
* These values will influence a) choice of research b) Interpretation of data.
* Marxists start from a radical + utopian view of soc. They see a constant conspiracy by the ruling class. Functionalists see inequality as inevitable. Interactionists introduce values into their work through identifying a problem "worthy" of investigation.
* Soc/ists can't escape their own experiences or their intellectual values. They have their own perception of "problems" + there causes + consequences, therefore values + ideology are involved at every point of research from choice of topic to interpretation of data.
* Selective perception clouds what is remembered from P.O. --> Analysis of results {Weber's caution against "value judgements" i.e. ultimate deductions or suggestions on what ought to be).
Alvin Gouldner - Anti-Minotaur - the myth of the value-free sociology. Opposed to Weber. Just as a Minotaur can't be separated, neither can facts + values in sociology. He advocates that soc/ists should be open about their values, so that the reader can gauge to what extent they have influenced the research.
Domain Consumptions - Basic ideas about human nature/ soc life) --> all researchers hold assumptions/ideas on the relationships bet. the individual + soc. This pervades the kind of questions they ask in direction of their work.
Howard Becker - "Who's side are WE on?" - argues values can't be avoided i.e. can't avoid taking sides. A balanced picture is highly unlikely as you would have to cover all aspects + groups involved. He argues that sociologists who only take account of the views of officials may accuse fellow researchers of being biased/lacking objectivity when they attempt to consider the views of the underdog. Yet those who follow the official line are equally biased as they are also taking a particular side! Like Gouldner, he believed Soc/ists should be aware of their biases + state them openly in a final report.
Methods - PO supposedly more value-free but a lot of the info recorded depends on a process of selective perception.
Jock Young - Wish some studies there is the sympathy side - drug taker etc. "We provoke suspicion that we are biased in favour of the subordinate party when we tell it from their POV".
Unstructured Interviews
Used to collect Qualitative Data. A range of Q's but in an order. Researcher builds a rapport with interviewee. Prompts respondent to talk about personal issues + feelings. Conversation may be taped + notes from it are developed after the interview. It is a good way of gaining an insight into another person's emotional world but interviewers need to be highly skilled in this method. - Danger = respondent may be led by facial expressions/body gestures.
Advantages -
* Gives "Insight into the meanings" which people attach to environments in their lives.
* Allows the interviewer to follow up interesting points the respondent makes.
* Allows the respondent to answer Q's fully in a way they want.
* Gives access to data of a sensitive nature, which can't be collected by "Quantitative Means".
Disadvantages -
* Hard to analyse quantitative data + present it in numerical graph form
* The interviewer can easily lead the respondent.
* Expensive
* Time consuming
* Interviewer Bias
* Sample size usually small + may be unrepresentative + ungeneralisable - Positivist critique.
* Social/personal characteristics E.g. their personal class, accent etc.
N.B. - Only Observation (P.O.) = more valid i.e. see how they believe as opposed to how they say.
* Subjective as opposed to objective, not standardised procedure. Comparison on relative means to social survey technique.
Criticisms Of Oakley's Study -"From Here To Maternity"
Practical
* Women could move away
* Miscarriages
* Recording data - type, shorthand.
* Thoroughness of method used created practical problems which would be v. time
consuming, too hard to make generalisations due to broad topic + uniqueness of every woman questioned.
Ethical
* Potentially it may upset people however if fully explained before the questions every interviewee should be OK with them
* Relationship bet. theory + method - She is a feminist researcher
* Only interested in women's point of view
* Unstructured interviews are best for feminist methodology - they will open up to each other
Relationship between Theory + Method = Interactionist b/c she sees the individual as important.
Research Methods + Theory
Validity - Valid research is that which presents a truthful picture of the social world. However there is disagreement between soc/ists as to what constitutes valid research. Interactionalists consider that positivist techniques are invalid + only methods that get at others interpretations of the world will produce valid data.
Reliability - this concerns the replicability of the research. It is assumed that scientific knowledge is reliable - if the research was repeated then the same results would be obtained. Thus for a technique of data research to be reliable it should produce results which aren't affected by the process of collection.
Positivist research techniques are more reliable than interpretive techniques.
They see themselves as scientific + tend to see society as the object of study + the individual as a relatively passive product of it. They don't acknowledge free will. Sociology is more important. They seek to reveal the causes of behaviour + therefore discover the laws by which it is governed. They intend to engage in large-scale quantitative research as the basis for generalisation + establishment of causal relationships. One thing has an effect on another. Cause + effect. However in attempting to adopt the methods + aims of the natural sciences, positivist soc/ists face problems of objectivity. Unlike in the natural sciences, sociology is a subject in which people study people. Positivists recognise this + much work goes into refining survey designing + interview techniques. Interpretivists however, argue that positivist research methods distort out understanding of behaviour + therefore it can't ever produce valid results.
Interpretivists - regard individuals as conscious, active, choice making beings, (thinking, feeling, reflexive). Research methods of Interpretivists are devised to make it possible to get at the individual's consciousness, to spell out their world view. They argue that qualitative research provides a valid account of human behaviour. However, positivists argue that their work is merely a descriptive + isn't scientific because it can't be used as a basis for generalisation + is not replicable.
Labelling Theory
Mead - "I", "Me", significant other, self-concept, role-set, s.f.p
Cooley - "Looking Glass Self", sig. other
Becker - Outsiders, moral entrepreneurs, master status, labelling
Edwin Lemert - Primary & Secondary Deviance
Stan Cohen - Folk Devils and moral panics, deviance amplification, deviant career
Aaron Cicourel - Social organisation of juvenile justice - stereotypes
Leslie Wilkins - Deviance Amplification Process - fuelled by Becker - Moral Entrepreneurs
Paedophile Hunt - Portsmouth, Sarah's Law, Names of sex offenders to be made open to public.
Mead - General Concepts - Self-concept "I + Me", significant other, generalised other, role, role set, SFP, dramaturgy, typing/labelling.
S.I. = Focus on the details of interaction
* Making sense is social nature everyday.
* Meaning in face-to-face interactions
* Social Order = fact or form created in everyday life.
Role Set - student, friend, cousin, brother, son, hockey player, neighbour, nephew, grandson
Self Concept = Two component parts.
"I" plus "me" <--Mead - Socialised view of self - How you think
Realise others view you in a different way others see you
Significant Other
I = selfish Cooley - "The looking glass self"
Me = you want to know what other people think of you We need feedback from others.
Herb Blumer - Reiterates Mead.
Popularised the term "Sym Int." in his 1969 book. * Influenced a generation of students at Chicago, including Becker + Goffman + devout apostles of Mead's ideas.
Becker - Dev isn't an inherent quality of the act but rather the way others see that act.
. Murder 2. Rape 3. Child Abuse 4. Armed Robbery. "How others see your behaviour makes that act deviant".
. Killing a person = Heroism, accident, reckless/dangerous driving, manslaughter, murder, euthanasia/mercy killing, self-defence.
This approach changes the focus of soc/ical research AWAY from why a person is deviant to why a person + how a person has been labelled as a deviant.
Master Status - A label which overrides all other labels. People can be labelled even if they haven't done anything.
Becker believes that most criminals will be propelled along a Dev Career by the relations + labels of others. This process will begin w/ minor acts of deviance as a teenager + progress to more serious crime. The person's self-concept/self-perception has been modified gradually over a period of time. Eventually they recognise + accept the deviant identity.
Becker - "Outsiders" - Someone who normal people wouldn't associate with. Everyone has a stereotypical view of him or her. Sometimes a label will become a "Master Status". These people will end up seeking out others labelled as such. This is how labelling can create cult groups in society + contribute to deviance. "If they see me as that, then that's what I'll be". S.F.P.
Lemert - Primary D = deviance before it is publicly labelled - not worth investigating as samples are biased + it has no impact on the person's actions or activities. He claims, the common factor among deviants is the process of labelling - the public reaction to the deviant leads to 2ndry dev.
Lemert argues 2ndry Dev should be the focus of study b/c of its effect on the individual. The central idea is that societal reaction can cause deviant behaviour.
Stan Cohen - In times of soc + econ crisis the Mass media play an imp role in developing labels + the creation of folk devils around which moral panics appear. The media launches a campaign against these groups making the public, police and these groups themselves more aware of their existence + hence creating a demand for "something to be done". Media = Moral Entrepreneurs - Becker. Cohen's Study into "Mods + Rockers"- media escalated problem. Dev Amp Process.
Cicourel - Study of police officers. He sat in the back of police cars in San Fran for many months watching + listening to the officers. He realised that "stops" were often based on crude stereotypes e.g. Young, male + black = gang member possibly carrying a weapon/drugs
He argues that whether a person is arrested or not depends on "negotiation" - If the suspect gives the police respect, they will be treated better + may be let off with a warning. Those who show disrespect were often arrested for minor crimes.
Wilkins - Amp of Dev = unintended outcome of moral panics or of social policies designed to prevent or ? deviance. The stimulus is the identification of the dev act by the police, a politician or the media. Typically, the attraction given to deviance by the media + moral entrepreneurs serves to attract new recruits and provides them with a definition of what the public expects, thus amplifying the amount of dev in soc.
Erving Goffman - Dramaturgy - Labelling Theory
Dramaturgical analysis, developed by E.G., consists of the definition of Soc. Int. in terms of theatrical performance. The presentation of self, the effort of a person to create specific impressions in the minds of others, is a central focus of dramaturgy.
The theory is used to understand behaviour patterns. People can only play roles if they receive positive feedback from others.
Goffman believed that social life was made up of a series of inter-connecting roles + actors need support (material/people) to play the role successfully. He accepts Mead's ideas particularly in which both the significant other + generalised other shape the individual's self-concept.
Goffman - Total Institutions
Prisons, concentration camps etc where those inside can only play 1 role + are given 1 generalised label. They are agencies of re-socialisation.
T.I. = designed to strip people of their self-image + replace it with one more acceptable to the ethos of the institution. He calls the process - "Institionalisation".
The T.I. goes about making the self-concept vulnerable by removing possessions + space + in some cases names to be replaced with whatever they want that person to be. Goffman says this process is to remove the props by which they retained a sense of their former selves + were able to communicate with others.
Labelling theorists expect the processes to be irresistible to their recipients but Goffman is true to his Interactionalist principles. Believing that social identities are not just imposed on people but are created + re-created as a 2-way interpretive process.
) Person in soc has roles.
2) Enters TI which aims to reconstruct them
3) All previous roles played in society = subordinate to role of inmate. Access to significant other is denied
4) Mortification process - Former self symbolically stripped away + a new institutional role is allocated rewards/punishments are used to reinforce role.
5) A) Intended Consequences - Converted - the new institutional role
B) Unintended Consequences - Intransient, Colonisation, Institutionalised
6) The individual returns to the entire world + may be able to re-establish some of the previous roles e.g. Husband/father.
Intransient = Fighting - Refuse to accept their definition of you
Conformity = Accepting the definition
Colonisation = Accepting the def while you are there
Institutionalisation = Becoming so dependant an institution that is impossible to cope in normal outside society.
Weber + SAT
Structuralists argue they can explain human behaviour e.g. why a person becomes criminal.
* SAT sees understanding as the key focus of sociology, not explanation.
* Verstehen. Nothing is objective + measurable as everyone has different perceptions.
Assumptions - External forces shape our actions. Positive methods will resemble structuralist to explain causal relationships e.g. poverty - influences a woman's reasons for becoming a prostitute.
The Importance Of The Theory - SAT offered the 1st rigorous criticism of Structuralist theories, for e.g. Weber's work on the rise of capitalism emphases the role of ideas in producing soc. change. For Marx, economic determinism (ownership of wealth + the means of production) shapes everything else in society. Rather then seeing consciousness + ideas shaped by objective + economic forces, W. sees consciousness, ideas + social situations to be the products of actors (people) in their social groups. There is no objective social reality external to man. It is our own interpretations by what we see class systems etc.
Social situations that are defined as "real" by actors and are "real" in their effects.
SAT Broken Down
* The values + perceptions of a situation determine the actors choice of goals - selection of the means of achieving these goals.
* The meanings attributed to the behaviour by the actor + others determines soc. action not external social forces.
* The social world exists only in the mind of people. It has not objective (all see in the same way) external reality, in that we all may perceive it differently.
* Social order emerges from shared meanings.
* Roles = negotiated by people not imposed by a ruling class (Marx) or shaped by a norm (Durk).
Method Broken Down
* The approach = anti-positivist + rejects scientific measurement + hypothesis.
* The sociologist should seek to understand the meanings that the actor attaches to events in the social world.
* Insight into the actor's experience of the world can be achieved by understanding the language; meaning can be achieved by "Verstehen Methods".
* There are no external causes of behaviour only the meanings + motives which people attach to their actions.
* Subjective data + the meanings that actors attach to their actions = the basis of a sociological understanding.
Weber vs. Marx - Authority vs. Power
Weber looks at social arrangement from the perspective of the individual in society. He asks "Why do people follow certain social rules + accept unfair social arrangements". He disagrees with Marx on powers + coercion and changes the focus to AUTHORITY. i.e. why we accept another person's right to tell us how to do something. He defines 3 types of authority.
Traditional - The way things have always been. Parents etc
Rational - Commonsense, morals, norms + values, ethics etc. Sensible
Charismatic - Martin Luther King, Hitler etc
Weber - Ideal Type Analysis
Many concepts using sociology are vague + central social phenomena can as a result be misclassified. [Cross Ref] Lukes, looked at the concept of alienation + found over 100 different usages and meanings within sociology.
Weber proposed that we make a list of key concepts of a concept + then use these to determine whether a social phenomenon fits the classification e.g. Democracy. You may not find all the characteristics of the ideal type in the reality of the phenomenon. However if the major one is present + the characteristics don't fit another ideal type better, then we accept that the observed phenomenon is a ...
Criticisms of SAT
* Functionalists point to the existence of culture within society before a person is born. The child is socialised into the culture + cannot create it
* Marxists argue the theory takes little or no account of the unequal distribution of power, wealth, opportunities etc within soc. Whether SA Theorists like it or not, such inequalities exist + are external to the individual + shape their actions. A Marxist response to Weber might read,
* "If situations are real, they are real in their consequences. However they might be differently interpreted by individuals".
* Other Interpretivist theories are critical. Becker - Weber over-emphasised a person's choice.
Garfinkel - SAT doesn't go far enough into rejecting external reality.
Clarke - Positivists deny that your can be objective using the Verstehen method.
Alain Touraine - How can conforming behaviour be a product of a person's meanings? It must be by definition have an external influence.
Marxism Vs SAT - Case Study - Donna Stead - Prostitution
Structuralist - External factors which might encourage a woman to become a prostitute.
Causes - Broken home, dysfunctional family, drugs, poverty, male dominance - Pimps, loose morals, external social forces act upon this person.
Meanings - Unstructured interviews to try to gain elicit meanings.
* Control over when they work
* Control over who they do business with
* Punters come back to them, therefore good at their job
* Kept some marriages together b/c husband has his sexual needs fulfilled
* Almost a social worker
* Most women do it, even if they don't charge strangers
* Stopped some men raping women.
* Internal social factors shape actions.
Phenomenology
* As a theoretical perspective it was developed in the 1960's
* Influential in the 1970's
* Owes a lot to Weber's SAT but goes further.
Looking at the world, focusing on the subjective meanings that individuals attach to their actions.
Alfred Schutz - Phen's should study social behaviour by studying the actions + interpreting the intentions of the actors and try to discover how individuals give meaning to the many aspects of social behaviour that they experience and see around them.
Phen's approach SAT from another perspective + argue we must understand the "commonsense world or everyday life; by putting our self in the place of other people". Interpreting the intentions of other actors to see how they give meaning to their behaviour is essential.
Phenomenological sociology is based on 2 rules.
. The descriptive imperative - "telling it how it is" i.e. reality from the actors own perspective.
2. The constitutive imperative - showing the elements from which the subject is built up. Gaining a "stock of commonsense knowledge" which all actors possess and use to cope with the situations and experiences they encounter.
From these two rules + phenomenology sociologists can develop in that we have a scientific method for generating theories. Schutz differentiates between...
st and 2nd order constructs.
st = Typifications used by ordinary actors. The common sense knowledge.
2nd = Ideal types constructed by the sociologist on the basis of the 1st O.C. They are based on the actor's commonsense typifications but go beyond them and have greater explanatory power.
Criticisms
. By concentrating on subjective meaning the theory ignores social structures; how they arise, are sustained + how they shape our behaviour.
2. Marxists criticise Phenomenology for being historical and uncritical of existing of the social world.
3. Philosophers challenge the rotation of the Inter-subjective validity. You see a colour as green and have learned to label it green. I see it as blue but call it green. Are we seeing the same thing?
4. Some sociologists see Schutz's work as so complex that it is difficult + can't see how the theory can be used.
Phenomenological Criticism of Positivism
Positivists see all social processes + phenomena as objects that can be classified and measured. The inter-relation (causal links) between phenomena can be observed and sociological theories can be produced. The method of positivism = based on the scientific study of the natural sciences -->
BUT... Atoms + molecules don't know they are being studied and so their behaviour doesn't change. Human beings respond to being studied and reported on and this changes the causal links --> Given that human beings can respond to being studied, it is equally obvious that what the positivist observed = a product of what the actors think + not something objective + dispassionate. --> Phenomenologists believe we create social reality, over behaviour and social phenomena = a product of the social meanings we attach to our actions. There is NO external social world independent of individuals and groups.
FASHION/Dress Style
Structuration - Functionalist - social conventions influence dress style
Marx - Fashion - the exploitation of the individual by commercial enterprises.
Labelling - The social roles which people play + the interaction with others shapes our dress style.
PHENOM - We, as actors chose styles to convey meanings. The shared meanings of how others will react to our dress sense is the key to understanding fashion.
Berger says "Presentation Of Self In Everyday Life"
5 Key Phenomenological Phrases
Social Meaning - These are the meanings people attach to things in society. This links with the social construction of society.
Social Construction Of Society - Berger explains it. People build up knowledge of their everyday life through their experiences + make sense of the environment in their interactions with others. They categorise + classify phenomena + build up commonsense knowledge of their society. Berger says, "Society is a human product that yet continuously acts back upon its producer"
Universe Of Meaning - This is socially created; it arises from the myths, customs, values and central belief systems of the society. This serves to provide stability in the society by supporting it with meanings showed by the majority of its members.
Sacred Canopy - Berger + Luckman describe it as ideas that come to be accepted as legitimate which stretch over society as a "protective cover". Religion for example. People turn to religion in times of crisis + it protects them from anomie, alienation + despair.
Interpretivism - They argue that human behaviour can't be understood as being governed by laws in the way that scientists say laws govern the natural world. Humours think, reflect + have reasons for acting as they do; they have consciousness + free will. People think + can change their behaviour if they are being observed. Interpretivists like Weber want to understand the meanings or reasons behind actions rather than just assume what they mean.
MACRO
MICRO
Theory
What holds society together + shapes our actions.
Functionalism
Collective Conscious/ Normative system + norms
Marxism
Power relationships
Weber - SAT
Authority
Labelling
Rules + other people's reaction
Phenomenology
Shared social meanings
Ethnomethodology
TACIT - Unspoken but taken for granted MEANINGS
Ethnomethodology - Key Points
Sociological Theory, which tries to compare the tacit rules, which guide our behaviour. Unlike structural explanations it doesn't accept the existence of external social structures, such as Merton's normative system or Durkheim's Col Con. People develop their own ways of making sense of the world. These assumptions create social order.
The Documentary Method consists of collecting the commonsense evidence we would use to support our interpretations of the world. The DM describes the process through which info - docs, appearance, police reports, past records + typifications are used to infer meaning + motives in the behaviour of others.
E.g. J. Maxwell Atkinson's work on suicide notes + Garfinkel's "Fake Therapy" - Answers were predetermined. No consistency but students made sense of them.
Indexicality - People will make sense of a sign, remark or particular action by reference to the context in which it occurs, that is, they index it to particular circumstances.
Ethnomethodologists collect data such as experiences of people as well as anecdotes to prove to people the existence of indexicality. The data it uses = "particular circumstances + practical reasoning as topics of empirical enquiry" Ethnomethodology is interested in the commonsense categories that members themselves deploy.
Glossing - the term used to describe how we pull things together. This is like the D.M. where people make a social reality to make sense out of an often-senseless interaction.
Schutz (Phenomenology) and Garfinkel (Eth) are meaning the same thing when they refer to typifications + tacit meanings. With Phenomenology, people have a stock of knowledge about the world, objects and people. "How to do it" knowledge rather than a general rationality. These stocks of knowledge are contingently valid; that is they are treated as right until something happens to make them problematic. Moreover, stocks of knowledge are not normally consulted; we simply take them for granted.
RECIPES - Garfinkel means the strategies used to pull interactions together to make sense of interactions. Like the "how to do it" knowledge. People will make sense of a situation or become frustrated by it, as they may not understand what is going on. If someone goes against the tacit meanings then the person they are interacting with will either try + make sense of it or become frustrated or confused.
Ethnomethodology is clearly "Processual" - to perform operations on data.
Ethno + Phenomenology
Eth work = premised on what Phen's call the "natural attitude" - the way we see the world in a particular way. The NA contains no fundamental doubts about the way the world is. i.e. doesn't question the reality of the world.
Phenom's were interested in the NA rather than doubting whether the world is "real". They were trying to understand what it is like to experience the world in the way that we experience it.
Sociology As A Science
Qualities of science, Measures/quantitative, Experiments, Logical/methodology, Replicable/proof, Objective, Facts rather than interpretation, A body of knowledge has been agreed, Causality.
Comte - "Sociology is the Queen of Sciences" - Social Facts.
Karl Popper = Science is different to the traditional/commonsense view
Science uncovers "descriptive laws" (tell us what happened). Social laws can be broken unlike the laws of nature. SL's tell people what they can + cannot do.
This method of basing general statements on accumulated observations is known as induction + is seen as the hallmark of science + the difference between science and non-science. Scientific statements based on experimental + observed evidence (facts) were contrasted with statements of other kinds based on authority, emotion, speculation, prejudice or habit.
Thomas Kuhn - "The Structure Of Scientific Revolutions - 1962"
His account questions the rationality of science. 3 parts of his argument -->
* Scientists aren't open minded but strongly committed to their theories
* Scientists, if forced will modify theories rather than give them up.
* Normal science is a puzzle solving activity. Kuhn says "Failure to solve the puzzle reflects not on the scientist but on the paradigm - a research tradition, a whole way of thinking + working.
Essential Features Of A Paradigm
* It forms the underlying theoretical model on which a particular branch or sub-branch of science is based at any given time.
* It is accepted without question by all of those working in the field at that time.
* It effectively determines the sort of problems that scientists should/not investigate (i.e. chemists don't do physics).
* It effectively determines the way in which such problems are tackled by giving rise to set procedures, rules + standards.
Sociology a Science?
Arguments for - "Unity Science Hypothesis"
Claim - All sciences share a common method
. Science causally explains: - Identifies patterns between events (positivism) OR identifies underlying causal connections between phenomena (Realism)
2. Objectivity: - Scientist remains distant from study.
3. Value Freedom: - Science provides knowledge of facts - what IS not OUGHT to be.
Arguments against - "Humanist + Radical View"
Claim - Fundamental distinction between the nat + soc sciences. Sociology can't be value free.
. Soc. science meaningfully interprets: - Aim of socio is to reveal the meanings actors put on their actions.
2. Subjectivity: - Relationship between sociologist + subject = a relationship between subjects who can communicate + share a common world.
3. No strict distinction between "facts + values" or "means + ends": - We cannot avoid ethical responsibility for social scientific research.
2 Types Of Criticism
Humanist: - It stresses that human action has specific qualities - it is meaningful, it follows rules ("is rule governed") involves choice + is intentional. Objects in the natural world share none of these qualities. S. Ac requires a method quite distinct from that employed in the natural sciences. While we want to explain natural events, we want to understand S Ac.
Radical: - Emphasises point 3 - There are not sharp fact/value distinctions fro social scientists b/c in dealing with + necessarily living within the social world, we are in the realm of values. They enter our analysis at the most fundamental level, when we come to select the issues we examine.
Participant Observation + Non P.O.
P.O. - The sociologist actively gets involved in the action they are studying
Non P.O. - Sociologist watches + records action but doesn't get involved.
Covert = Macentire undercover - Chelsea Head-hunters
Overt = Tells people what they are doing - Eileen Barker - Moonwatch - O. P.O.
Main dis/ads w/ OPO = they may act differently as they know they are being studied. Also with certain groups it is possible to become submerged into the group.
Adv = actually being there will help her find out more - First hand account.
Overt Non-P.O. Elton Mayo - Hawthorne Effect - Whatever setting they changed in the factory the work rate ?. It was b/c the workers knew they were being watched. It effected their behaviour.
Positivism - Central belief = that sociology is like a science N.B. The literal meaning of soc/gy = the science of soc. Society commands the person's behaviour i.e. "puppet on a string"
This approach = assoc w/ founding fathers Comte/Durkheim. A scientific approach is stressed in methodology; notably a standardised measure - (The same format for all response) - Structured Int, pre-coded q's + Questionnaires. It is believed that people react in a predictable way to external stimuli. By studying soc, it is possible to derive causal laws.
Interpretivism - The subject matter of soc/gy = distinct from the natural sciences i.e. people are "thinking, feeling reflexive beings". Basically human beings possess a consciousness + therefore don't behave in a predictable way to external stimuli i.e. gravity/pen expt. Even the most basic of human action is underpinned by meanings, motives + reasons. Then people actively construct their own social reality on a daily basis. From this side of the coin, it is imp. to understand how people think/feel. To fully comprehend their action, the key is to empathise with the person's state of mind via watching them in their natural setting. (P.O.) or comprehend how they feel through talking to them at length (unstructured interviews) e.g. Ann Oakley - From here to maternity.
Reliable - Replicable, some results from re-testing, common system, objective measurement - when you don't rephrase qu's, scientific, structural techniques - v. scientific.
Validity - Authentic data, accurate data, genuine statement of meanings, soc actors hold.
Representative - typical, cross-section, generalisable from proportionately similar characteristics.
Primary & Secondary Data
Pri = Material generated first-hand by the sociologist
Sec = Use of information which has already been collected by someone else for other purposes.
Advantages of Sec Data
Disadvantages of Sec Data
Usually easy comparative format
Some people = more likely to get labelled than others
Relates to data all ready in existence
Govt. stats are twisted. Stats are easily distorted
Cheap + easy to access
They aren't objective and may not be reliable
Sometimes the only info available
Material can be too subjective or biased
Readily available
They might reflect the methods of data collection rather than what they are collecting
Comparative analysis Wealth of Info
May be difficult to interpret what is meant.
Experiments
The Independent Variable - manipulated to estimate its effect on the Dependant Variable. If a causal relationship exists then there will be a correlation between variables.
Experimental Group - Manipulate Variables. Control Group - No change.
Lab experiments - behaviour examined under controlled conditions, hypothesis, tested clinically + objectively. (Associated with positivism)
* Asch - Conformity. Four of the subjects lied and one didn't know what was going on. Eventually that one began to conform with the others and agree.
* Eysenck + Nias - Media research
* Bandura, Bandura + Ross - "Bobo Doll"
* Stanley Milgram - Obedience - Shock treatment
Field experiments - conducted in natural surroundings; where subjects are unaware they are participating in an experiment. I.V. is still maintained. More popular with sociologists.
I.V. = the teachers perception of the pupils under their care
* Elton Mayo - Hawthorne Effect - Overt- Non. P.O.
* Jane Elliot - Brown eyes/blue eyes - Classroom. Deception
* Rosenthal and Jacobson - Self Fulfilling Prophecy - Pygmalion in the classroom
* Sissons - Paddington Station Expt - requests for directions in 2 outfits. 1 = Businessman, suit etc. 2 = Manual labourer. The 1st person systematically gets more help.
Ethics
With Millgram the expt, caused suffering to the teacher. Deception is involved. * Not wanting to harm anyone else. * The teacher thinking he could be possibly capable of killing someone. * Is it morally right to lie to someone for the purpose of an expt. * Teacher would be under physical and mental stress.
Adv with Field - * Greater relevance for everyday life * Avoids experimenter effect found in the Hawthorne studies as they are unaware they are being studied.
Disadvantages - * Extraneous variable = hard to control i.e. mood, health, whether a person is in a rush when asked for directions * More time consuming + expensive to conduct then lab experiments. This has been employed from the more Interpretivist side i.e. Ethnomethodology - people's commonsense methods + conventions for carrying out social life. * Aim = to cut across normal life to uncover these implicit rules. E.g. Garfinkel asking students to go home and pretend to be lodgers.
Comparative Method
> Comparing similarities + differences between the societies -{allows analysis + allows soc. change over a long period.
> Also known as the natural expt or "Quasi-expt" -{ less moral + ethical problems therefore less likely to affect the behaviour of those studied.
> Used by many classical soc/ists - Durkheim, Marx, Weber. Assoc particularly w/ positivism + establishment of soc/gy as a scientific discipline.
Durkheim's research stresses the importance of systematic comparison i.e. between societies + between different areas/groups w/in a single soc. Such comparisons help to explain why a correlation does/doesn't occur. Note how rate of suicide remains relatively constant, therefore can't be explained by individual features like mental illness.
Thus suicide = a product of the degree of social integration. On analysis of the different societies, Durkheim notes suicide rates = higher in Protestant countries. Yet Germany has one of the highest rates - is this dependant on German nationality. In Bavaria the rate is lower (a Catholic are substantiates the importance of variable of Religion.
I.V.'s = Age, Religion, Marital Status, Gender, Nationality
D.V.'s = Suicide Rate
Disadv = Available data may not make it possible to isolate variables precisely i.e. there may be ways in which 2 societies differ + determining which I.V. causes the difference isn't straight fwd.
Questionnaires
* Open ended - Allows respondent to compose his/her own answer. - More valid data since the respondent can say what he thinks in his own words.
* Closed/Fixed Choice - Responses can be quantified Closed Q's don't allow respondents to qualify + develop their answers.
Administering Q's
Structured Int - Adv - a trained interviewer = on hand to ensure q's are completed according to instructions + to clarify any ambiguous q's
Disadv - Problem of interviewer bias + expensive compared to other alternatives
Postal Q's - Used by JWB Douglas "Home & School" - longitudinal study of 5000 kids.
Adv - Inexpensive way of gathering information, especially if respondents are gathered over a wide geographical area
Disadv - The return rate doesn't often exceed 50% of the pop. This may seriously bias results since there may be systematic differences between those who return Q's and those who don't.
Defending Q's
Positivists argue that they provide data, which can be clearly quantified - in fact they are largely designed for this purpose. It is possible therefore to identify causal relationships + to make generalisations. It is possible to replicate such studies + therefore they are reliable.
Without quantification, the soc/ists work will remain at the level of impressionistic guesswork and unsupported insight. The Q method = 1 of the main tools of measurement in positivism.
Criticisms of Q's
Those who adopt a positivist perspective often reject the entire procedure of operationalising concepts, selecting indicators, constructing Q's + quantifying the results. They argue that rather than providing a valid picture of the soc world, such research in fact distort soc reality. The soc/ist has already decided how to study a particular phenomena.
From a Phenomenological perspective the appropriate procedure = not to measure degrees of job satisfaction. Instead the soc/ist should discover whether workers themselves categorise jobs as satisfactory or unsatisfactory + if so, what procedures do they adopt to do this. This therefore involves an exploration of the ways in which actors construct social reality, rather than the soc/ist imposing his social categories on the social world
Therefore from a phenomenological perspective, positivist research lacks validity - as if in trying to be scientific they end up constructing their own versions of soc reality which may have little to do with the actual social world they are trying to describe + explain.
Case Studies
CS = detailed explanations of a particular community, social group, person or situation in society. Method of study may be the examination of existing records or unstructured interviewing.
CS can be used to...
* Produce typologies, or a set of categories defining types of soc. phenomenon.
* to generate new hypothesis which can then be tested against other data.
* s a preliminary research technique to gain insight + generate hypothesis which can be later tested by a large scale survey technique.
* "Develop more general theoretical statements about regulations in social structure + process" claims Becker. E.g. a case study of a particular soc can be used to satisfy a general theory about social life.
* Enable the researcher to gain insights into the behaviour + meanings of the group being studied. With certain phenomena, other methods are inappropriate. E.g. community studies, it would be impossible to get the same quality of insights.
* Useful for development of other sociologists. An e.g. of this is Paul Willis's study of a single school which produced a no# of hypothesis about the relationship between education + capitalist societies.
Disadvantages with CS
* They contribute to the process of arriving at generalisation, you cannot generalise on the basis of 1 CS findings.
* It is difficult to apply the findings of one study to another
* It is difficult to compare the results of studies carried out by different people at the same time or by the same person at different times.
Longitudinal Studies
Following a sample of respondents over a long period of time at regular intervals.
Examples = TVs 7up, 14up, 21up etc Best e.g. = JWB Douglas's "Home + School" follows kids born in the 1st week of March 1946 --> tracked through the 16 years of their education --> compulsory education and IQ tests.
Key Adv = Whereas other methods provide a "snap shot" of what is happening, longitudinal studies monitor social change.
Disadv = Panel Conditioning - effect on people taking part. Panel Mortality - where they drop out. As the sample dwindles the representativeness of a longitudinal study can be affected.
Factors affecting choice of research method
Key areas of consideration = Theoretical standpoint. Practical constraints + moral/ethical considerations.
Choice of topic
Theoretical Preference ?? Practical Considerations
Research Method
Theoretical Preference - If the researcher possesses positivist approach the aim will be to measure as objectivity as possible using quantitative measures e.g. structured social survey. If researcher takes int. approach the aim will be to study the subjective meanings which underpin individuals behaviour + to probe feelings/intentions - using qualitative techniques i.e. ethnographic research.
N.B. all researchers see themselves as positivists/Interpretivists i.e. existence of realists/Structuration theorists. Similarly, there has been one ?ing trend to combine research methods or adoption "tool box" approach to topic under study --> this blurs the simplistic distinction between two methodologies.
Practical Constraints - Time - Lengthy research = not possible e.g. longitudinal study/P.O. If a quick response = desired - adopt soc. survey method. Money - if limited funds are available a comparatively cheap method needs to be found e.g. analysis of secondary data or Postal Q's.
N.B. those who fund/publish research investigations may be more simplistic to some styles of research than others! Awarding bodies may force direction of research.
Subject Matter - Covert P.O. may be the only way of studying deviant groups/gaining access. Research to establish trends may suit quantitative research e.g. analysis of stats. If research pop = geographically dispersed = Post Q's may be the practical solution.
Size of research team - dependant upon funding affects No# of respondents + style of research
Opportunist Methods - use of personal connections/unexpected opening + chance contracts e.g. Laurie Taylor's friendship with John McVicar.
Ethical Considerations -{some methods experience more than others i.e. P.O. Resolve around professional guidelines which are followed in social + psychological well-being should not be adversely affected, confidentiality/anonymity should be respected.
SAMPLING
Representative - The nearer the actual sample is to the population under study, the more accurate it will be. This criteria makes it possible to generalise with more accuracy.
Typical study = cross-section, generalisable, proportionately similar characteristics.
Representative Sample = Make sure people studied have the same characteristics are the rest of the group from which they are selected. * Make sure the diff strata in the population are correctly represented in sample. * Make sure everyone in the sample population has an equal chance of being selected. * Try to ensure the full sample are interviewed i.e. common fault with postal Q's - their low response rate. --> Similar Q's should be easily understood by different respondents + capable of eliciting a precise answer.
Sampling Techniques - Random sample - based on pure chance. Everyone has the same likelihood of being selected.
* Systematic (or quasi-random) - every Nth person in the sampling frame is chosen. A sampling force is the list from which those to be sampled are drawn (such as an electoral register).
* Stratified - a random sample = taken from predetermined categories such as occupation, age, gender or ethnicity. This ? the chances of obtaining a representative sample.
* Quota sampling - the "High Street" version of stratified. The researcher stands in a city centre street + interviews quotas of people e.g. N number of single men, women aged over 30, manual workers, etc. This is a quick but less reliable method.
* Cluster or multi-stage sampling - Instead of researchers interviewing respondents in every city a no# or representative cities are selected. Then a number of representative areas are selected within each of the selected cities. Thus one sample is drawn from another.
Samples can be UNREPRESENTATIVE yet still produce valuable results -->
Snowball sampling - based on personal recommendation + is sometimes referred to as opportunity sampling. The researcher finds 1 suitable respondent, who then introduces the researcher to another suitable respondent who in turn, introduces the researcher to another and so on. It provides a way of investigating groups, which may be reluctant to be investigated.
Respondent Sampling - Those selected = of particular relevance to the investigation.
Classic e.g. = The affluent worker study (1968) in Luton. The above-average wages of the Luton car workers made them untypical of the British W.C. But this very untypically made them an ideal group on which to test out the embourgeoisiement theory.
