Gamson (1992: 233) claims that,
“To sustain collective action, the targets identified by the frame must successfully bridge the abstract and the concrete. By connecting broader socio-cultural forces with human agents who are appropriate targets of collective action, one can get the heat into the cognition.”
RAWA achieves the latter through publishing various documents of injustices (7) and through their involvement in the news media. (10) They try to create an injustice frame showing the harsh reality of life in Afghanistan, to attract more collective action from the world, through the media. Gamson (1992: 234) states,
“Human agents are typically identified as causal agents in a mortality play about good and evil…”
However Gamson (1992: 234) also notes that if people only relied on the media it would be difficult to find any frame at all. RAWA’s website helps to aid their own definition of injustices to promote collective action. (7), (8), (9), (10)
IDENTITY
Being a collective agent involves being a part of a ‘we’ who can do something as opposed to a ‘they’ who have opposite values and interests. Through their injustice frame RAWA are also creating an ‘identity frame’, in the form of a ‘they’. The 'they' are the Taliban and Northern Alliance. In this case the movement becomes more important than the issue. (Gamson, 1992: 239) Gamson (1992) notes that there are three embedded layers in a collective identity; organisational, movement and soldiery groups.
RAWA have done what Gamson (1992) claims is enlarging the personal identities of constituents to include the relevant collective identities as part of their definition of ‘self ‘. Gamson (1992: 239) This is also a technique used in frame bridging and frame extension, which shall be explained later. The latter is evident in an attempt to create a ‘we’ from their logo,
“If you are freedom loving and anti-fundamentalist you are with RAWA, support and help us.” (11)
In collective action frames the ‘we’ stand in opposition to the ‘they’. (Gamson, 1992: 240) RAWA through their photographs (8), objectives (12) and documents (9) show the Taliban and the Northern Alliance to be the ‘they’. Through the same mechanisms, for example photographs (13), objectives (12) and documents (14) they also promote the ‘we’, that is anyone who is ‘ anti fundamentalist etc.’
AGENCY
The media are important in agency as well as injustice frames. Gamson (1992) notes that,
“ No news is bad news…whether the movement is framed positively or negatively is irrelevant….arrests and suppression only confirm the fact that they are important enough to be a threat to authority.” (Gamson, 1992: 235)
Agency has been an important part of RAWA’s campaign. Gamson (1992: 235) claims that culture and social structure combine to induce collective helplessness. This has been true in Afghanistan. The Shariah laws and the structured Taliban and Northern Alliance forces have killed and punished collective activists, most notably Meena the founder of RAWA. (3) Apart from creating an injustice frame RAWA could use the fact that their leader was killed as evidence that, as Gamson (1992: 235) states, ‘they are important enough to be a threat to authority.’
RAWA make it clear that despite political oppression they have grown and achieved many things. This agency is evident in RAWA’s website section entitled ‘RAWA’s Social Activities’. (6) RAWA state that they;
Education
Run 15 primary and secondary schools
Run literacy courses for refugee women
Run 5 orphanages
Health Care
Have mobile health teams
Run Malalai hospital and clinic
Human rights
Provide human rights organisations and media with news and reports about killing, stoning, amputations and other inhumane actions of the fundamentalists.
Cultural
Produce cassettes of songs with anti-fundamentalist contents and educational subjects
Propaganda and Political/Social
Organise demonstrations, functions, and conferences to expose the
Fundamentalist’s crimes.
Financial
Run handicrafts, carpet, tailoring and bead knitting workplaces and other activities to boost finance.
Services like those mentioned above would be very important in Afghanistan. This is because only 29/100 people in Afghanistan can reach appropriate health care services by local means of transport within one hour. Their hospital and mobile health teams would be of great importance to those who don’t have access to treatment. Also their education programmes will help to provide for a population were 85% of females and 53% of males are illiterate. (http://www.afghanaid.org.uk)
In order to emphasise the reality of their activities RAWA have included photographs in their gallery that show a great deal of agency. For example they have included photographs of teaching programmes of women in schools. (13) RAWA are attempting to show that collective action can empower members.
FOUR PROCESSES OF FRAME ALIGNMENT
FRAME BRIDGING
Snow et al. (1981: 213) state that frame bridging is referring to the linkage of two or more ideologically congruent but structurally unconnected frames regarding a particular issue or problem. RAWA achieve frame bridging at both an organisational and an individual level. For example they have bridged relations with international organisations such as,
- Amnesty International
- Global Sister Hood Network
- Equality Now
- WOMENKIND worldwide (4)
They also attempt to bridge individuals through visiting refugee camps and teaching the women there about human rights. (3) Through RAWA these individuals gain the organisational base for expressing their discontent. Also through their website RAWA have used frame bridging through email. (15) Here people can discuss their thoughts and grievances, which can in turn influence other readers.
It is also evident that RAWA use their injustice frame in order to produce frame bridging. Mc Carthy and Zald (1977) claim that,
“ …grievances and discontent may be defined, created and manipulated by….organisations.” (Snow et al., 1981: 214)
Gamson (1992: 242) extends this point by emphasising that experiential knowledge helps to connect the abstract cognition of unfairness with the emotion of moral indignation. And so maybe RAWA manipulate the frame to that of an injustice one in order to bridge women or individuals who have experienced this in Afghanistan, most notably women refugees.
FRAME AMPLIFICATION
Snow et al. (1981:213) explain that frame amplification is the clarification and invigoration of an interpretive frame that bears on a particular issue. There are two types of frame amplification; value amplification and belief amplification.
Value amplification refers to the identification of values that have not yet inspired collective action. (Snow et al., 1981: 214) RAWA through their goals and objectives (12) identify issues to the frame that should inspire collective action. One of their objectives for example states,
“ To establish freedom, democracy, peace and women’s rights in Afghanistan.” (12)
Here RAWA are identifying values in the hope that with other process such as transformation and injustice frames, this will create collective action.
Belief amplification, refers to the presumed relationship between two things. Beliefs are important because they support action in pursuit of values and so it is necessary to amplify them. There are fives examples of belief amplification, (Snow et al., 1981: 215) all of which appear to be evident in the structure of RAWA’s movement.
-
Seriousness of the problem, RAWA amplify this through documents (9) and photographs (8), that show the deaths and poor treatment of people. In their articles (16) they show readers the seriousness of Northern Alliance being Afghanistan’s leaders. A quote from an article states,
“…the Northern Alliance left the city in 1996 with 50, 000 dead behind it.” (16)
-
Causality/Blame, In the case of RAWA it is very obvious who is to ‘blame’. Through their usage of photographs (8), documents (9) and even objectives (12) the Taliban and Northern Alliance seem to be the main cause of problems. For example one of RAWA’s objectives state,
“To struggle against any types of fundamentalists and their masters.” (12)
The words ‘struggle’ and ‘against’, path negative images for the remainder of the sentence, ‘fundamentalists’ and ‘masters’.
-
Targets of influence, Snow et al. (1981) claim that effective mobilisation requires a more negatively evaluated target of opposition. RAWA create the belief that the fundamentalists will destroy Afghanistan. Their targets in order to create this belief is statistics on how many people have died, how many refugees fundamentalist rule has created and in general the disastrous effects of their rule. (16)
-
Probability of change, Snow et al. (1981:215) note that social action is contingent on anticipated outcomes and optimism about the outcome of a collective challenge will enhance the probability of change. Through creating an agency frame RAWA has identified a positive probability of change. As previously mentioned they have established hostels, schools, hospitals, employment and international recognition, which are all aspects that promote the probability of change. (6) RAWA fail to emphasis aspects where agency has failed. They tend instead to amplify causality and blame. (9)
-
Necessity of standing up, Snow et al. (1981: 216) claim that frame amplification is needed to increase collective action and that it is micro-mobilisation efforts, which amplify this. Beliefs about the necessity refer to beliefs about the instrumentality of one own efforts in pursuit of the movements objective. RAWA use a pessimistic tone in creating this effect. For example one of their motto’s is, ‘You are not free until all women are free’. (20) This helps to create a sense of responsibility so potential participants will see their involvement as a moral obligation. (Snow et al., 1981: 216)
Freeman and Gamson (1979: 32) conclude that it is often necessary to amplify beliefs so as to increase the prospect that some potential participants will see their involvement as a moral obligation. This seems to be a tactic employed by RAWA in order to increase collective action. (Snow et al., 1981: 216)
FRAME EXTENSION
RAWA have achieved what Snow et al. (1981: 217) claim is enlarging an adherent pool, by portraying its objectives (12) and activities (6) as being congruent with the values and interests of potential adherents. RAWA identify issues such as human rights in their aims and objectives, these are also global issues as well as significant only to Afghanistan. In this sense then RAWA have extended their movement to gain support from international organisations such as,
- Amnesty International
- Urgent Action Fund
- V-Day
- Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom (4)
On a more individual level, RAWA’s activities include social work amongst refugee Afghan women. (6) This can also be seen as a form of frame extension also. These women who are informed about RAWA will possibly go onto other refugee camps and spread RAWA’s teachings, further extending the frame in question.
Further aspects of frame extension are evident in RAWA’s website. The website itself promotes global interest, this is the one of the reasons many people know about RAWA in the western world. To promote extension further, RAWA’s website can be read in many different languages, such as Persian, English, Spanish, Italian, French, and German. (11)
As well as using their motto for the purpose of ‘frame identity’ RAWA are also using it in an attempt to leave their movement open to a wide range of people in the following category,
“ anyone who is freedom loving and antifundamentalist is with us”. (11)
RAWA in an attempt to extend their frame have spoken at many major international events. For example they spoke at the ‘International Women’s Day’ on March 8th 2002. (17) One of their recent efforts of extension was an exhibition held by RAWA in New York on the 3rd of December 2002. This may be an attempt by RAWA to extend their frame to people who have also suffered under Islamic fundamentalism on September 11th.
TRANSFORMATION
Snow et al. (1981: 219) claim that in order to gain support and secure participants what may be needed is a transformation of frame. They identify two such transformation processes that are important to movement recruitment and participation; transformation of domain-specific and global interpretive frames.
Transformation of Domain Specific Interpretive Frames
This term simply means that something that was previously taken for granted is reframed as problematic and in need of repair. Turner (1983) notes that.
“ participation involves not only coming to see an inexcusable tragedy… as an unfortunate accident but redefining it …in more negative terms than was previously the case.” (Snow et al., 1981: 220)
RAWA achieve this through their injustice frame. Through documents (9) and photographs (8) they reform the status quo as evil and claim that the right way forward is what their aims and objectives promote. For example they want to bring together all ‘…freedom-loving and democratic force…’ (12), in order to struggle against the status quo, that is the fundamentalists and those who collaborate with them. (12)
Transformations of Global Interpretive Frames
Snow et al. (1981: 221) note that in this final process of frame alignment, the scope is broadened to a greater extent again, and functions as a master frame. Domain-specific experiences are now given new meaning and re-arranged. Every aspect of life comes to be reframed in terms congruent with the movement. In order to achieve the latter RAWA have reconstructed experiences of many women, for example in their website they have written accounts of events such as those who have been beaten or lost sons because of fundamentalism. (21)
SECTION THREE
STRUCTURE OF THREAT AND OPPORTUNITY IN RAWA.
?
APPROPRIATION OF THREAT AND OPPORTUNITY
RAWA have invented new ways of perceiving what was previously the status quo in Afghanistan. Through their schools and social groups (6) they have imported ideas from human rights commissions (4) worldwide and have attempted to diffuse them throughout Afghan society. For example for years in Afghanistan it was taken for granted that women are second-class citizens. The society followed the teachings of the Koran, which states,
“ A male shall inherit twice as much as a female”
“ In any of your women commit fornication…confine them to their houses till death overtakes them…
“ Men have authority over women because Allah has made the one superior to the others…”
(Dawood, 1983: 367-370)
Johnson (1998: 42) states that women’s rights have been seriously curtailed for supposed infringements of Taliban edicts. He states that it is clear that any nation-wide form of justice introduced by them will inevitably include practices which violate human rights.
RAWA in an attempt to diffuse their ideologies on human rights through Afghan society and the world have been involved in activities such as campaigning (18), holding conferences (19) and attending global functions (17) in an attempt to expose the status quo, that is what Johnson (1998) above, talks about (harsh fundamentalist treatment) and diffuse the ideology of human rights and democracy for all in Afghan society. RAWA as previously mentioned use their social activities (6) to promote ‘agency’ and their aims and objectives to en-still understanding in order to diffuse definition and induce collective action.
‘RAWA’s Activities’. Here RAWA state that they;
Education
Run 15 primary and secondary schools
Run literacy courses for refugee women
Run 5 orphanages
RAWA provide a threat to the opposer when they educate the docile to refrain from the status quo making them aware of their rights and providing a basis for them to engage in collective action and change the status quo.
Health Care
Have mobile health teams
Run Malalai hospital and clinic
RAWA provide a threat once again by gaining more members, through providing free health care and services much needed by people.
Human rights
Provide human rights organisations and media with news and reports about killing, stoning, amputations and other inhumane actions of the fundamentalists.
RAWA are making the world aware of the non-usage of human rights in Afghanistan, which may provide an opportunity for further collective action, and thus prove to be a threat to fundamentalism.
Cultural
Produce cassettes of songs with anti-fundamentalist contents and educational subjects
RAWA are educating people of their rights, through music which can stir more emotion than word and thus increase the opportunity of collective action.
Propaganda and Political/Social
Organise demonstrations, functions, and conferences to expose the
Fundamentalist’s crimes.
RAWA are posing a threat to fundamentalism on a global scale, and by making their plight known are providing the opportunity for their movement to expand.
Financial
Run handicrafts, carpet, tailoring and bead knitting workplaces and other activities to boast finance.
By increasing their financial resource base RAWA have more opportunity to promote their organisation and thus collective action, whilst providing a threat to fundamentalism.
SOCIAL APPROPRIATION/ATTRIBUTION
Mc Adam et. al. (2001) state that it is a challenger’s capacity to appropriate sufficient organisation and numbers to provide a social/organisational base – and not that organisation itself which makes mobilisation possible. (Mc Adam et. al., 2001: 47)
RAWA have achieved appropriation through various lineaments of contention.
Social change processes (Mc Adam et. al., 2001:41)
RAWA ‘s appeal and influence grew in the years of Soviet occupation
- Political opportunities and constraints
The political atmosphere was ‘suffocating’ and so opportunities for effective action were few.
- Forms of organisation/ Framing
RAWA organised using various framing processes, such as agency, injustice, and identity and their frame alignment processes, bridging, amplification, extension and transformation to appropriate organisation and numbers.
- Repertoires of contention
Through organisation and framing processes RAWA have increased the opportunity for change, by increasing their resource base, that is more activists and thus increased the threat to their foe. They have changed to more contentious goals. For example in 1979 RAWA became directly involved in the war of resistance. The strength of their threat was evident when the KGB assassinated RAWA’s leader Meena, in 1987. However this led to increased exposure of injustice and increased potential for resource mobilisation and collective action. This increased opportunity for RAWA subsequently increased the threat to fundamentalism.
BROKERAGE
“ Linking of two or more previously unconnected sites by a unit that mediates their relations with one another and/or with yet other sites.” (Lecture Notes 21/11/02)
In the case of RAWA an example of brokerage occurs when RAWA volunteers are working in refugee camps. (16) They inform these women of their rights and explain that the status quo is unacceptable. There may be a possibility that these women will spread this ‘word’ around the refugee camp and other camps if they move again, which is a likely scenario for refugees.
This is an excellent case of brokerage as Afghanistan contains one of the largest groups of refugees in the world. Since the Soviet invasion, the war in Afghanistan has led to more than six million people fleeing its borders mostly to Pakistan. (Johnson, 1998: 36) A survey in Kabul’s district 3 in 1996 showed that over half of those interviewed had lived in their current house for one year or less and a quarter for six months or less. (Johnson, 1998: 39)
Brokerage also occurs when RAWA speakers attend international functions. (17) There attendance at these functions promotes the possibility of frame bridging. An example of this is that Amnesty International now act as a form of extension for RAWA, by writing various articles about their campaigns. (Amnesty)
SECTION FOUR
OVERALL ASSESSMENT OF RAWA’S ORGANISTION
SECTION ONE
RAWA first organised as a result of oppressive Shariah laws. It organised as an independent political and social organisation, fighting for human rights and social justice. However after Soviet occupation ended in 1992, their political struggle was organised primarily against fundamentalism and Taliban policies. Today their struggle is still with fundamentalism, but also with the Northern Alliance. (3)
RAWA have organised themselves into a Council of Leadership which focuses primarily on education, culture issues, health care, propaganda and foreign relations. (4)
SECTION TWO
They have used the processes of frame alignment to aid collective action in their organisation. They have used photographs (8), documents (9), and the media (10), in order to represent grievances and project moral indignation and injustices.
RAWA have also in their use of identity, provided a wide framework for anyone who is anti-fundamentalist to be their ‘we’ in order to again increased collective action. (11) They also use aspects of their injustice framing through photographs (8) and documents (9) to portray the Taliban and Northern Alliance as the ‘they’.
RAWA have provided a wide list of their activities and achievements also known as agency in an attempt to show that members can be empowered through collective action. (6)
RAWA in an attempt to align their frame, have used the four processes of frame alignment widely. They have bridged international organisations and individuals through attending international conferences (17) and educating individuals. (6) Their use of injustice framing has also been implemented in this bridging.
RAWA have also amplified their frame by promoting and educating Afghan’s on human rights issues. (6) They have amplified the seriousness of human rights issues in Afghanistan, and made it known that the statue quo can be changed with collective action.
In an attempt to extend their frame RAWA have gained support from international organisations such as amnesty international. (4) RAWA’s website also provides a great basis for extension as it is available to read in many different languages. (11)
RAWA have also transformed domain specific and global interpretive frames. They have organised to promote hardships previously accepted in Afghan society to be unacceptable (12) and (do something on the master frame)
SECTION THREE
RAWA through their activities have been exposed as a threat to the ‘they’, the Northern Alliance fundamentalists. Through their activities (6) they have created a sense of agency to the ‘we’. RAWA have appropriated mobilisation and increased the threat. They have increased opportunity for themselves through a system of brokerage, which increases the possibility of collective action and subsequently increases the threat to the Northern Alliance.
WHICH APPROACH BEST CHARACTERISES IT?
NEW SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
RAWA show a lot of the signs of ‘new social movements’. RAWA like new social movements acquire rights not power and their goals are about freedom of expression. (12) New social movements like RAWA stress symbolic action and action is not inclined towards economic values but quality of life. RAWA are attempting to regain their robbed identity of women of Afghanistan as equal citizens. (12)
COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOUR
Smelser (1962) claims that collective behaviour comes from problems of integration in structures in society. He claims that there are mass societies detached from normal society and that movements grow as group become alienate. (Lecture Notes 3/10/02) Marx and Mc Adam (1994: 5) claim that collective behaviour can mean a challenge to unjust authority. This all seems very relevant to RAWA, who state that in Afghan society women are the alienated and RAWA attempt to change this through challenging the unjust fundamentalist authority.
RESOURCE MOBILISTION
RAWA in resource mobilisation would come under Tilly and Gamson’s ‘Political Process Approach’. RAWA recognise that they cannot achieve their goals through democratic political means and so became a social movement. Mc Carthy and Zald (1973, 1977) state that resource-mobilisation was conceived as a response to those who saw social movements as resulting from discontent in society. (Marx and Mc Adam, 1994: 81) RAWA obviously formed as they were discontented with the unequal situation in Afghanistan.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Charles, N. (2000) Feminism, the State and Social Policy
Macmillan press Ltd.: Great Britain
Johnson, ?. (1998) ‘ ‘
Mc Adam et al. (2001) Dynamics of Contention
Cambridge University Press: UK
Marx, G. and Mc Adam, D. (1994) ‘ ‘
Prentice Hall: New Jersey
APPENDIX
