Evaluate the factors that enabled Mussolini to rise to power.

by macbook93 (student)

When on the 29th of October King Victor Emmanuel appointed Benito Mussolini Prime Minister of Italy it was enigmatic for some contemporaries how a person who had no previous governmental experience and whose party had only attained 35 seats in Parliament could adopt the office of the Prime Minister. Furthermore he was an ambiguous character. He was leader of a new party relying on the democratic system on the one hand and on the other the leader of a paramilitary organisation who terrorised socialists and participated in illegal actions. The crucial question is, which factors, wether long- or short-term, were the most significant to enable Mussolini’s rise to power. To anticipate, the combination of several long-, medium, and short-term causes were crucial in enabling Mussolini to become Prime Minister.

The first World War had lasted longer than anyone has expected and pre-war expectations and promises were not fulfilled. Just a few victories could compensate the immense casualties and the Paris Peace Conference has hugely humiliated the Italian population by not granting them all of “Italia Irredente”, the land around Trieste, Fiume and Tyrol. Furthermore, returning soldiers found themselves in an alienated position. Ambitious former fellow peasants who seized the advantage for gaining money by buying more land and had become wealthy and influential while those serving at the front had become permanently disabled. In some regions returning soldiers were greeted by the red flag and due to these circumstances soldiers felt betrayed by those who were not fighting in the war. In addition, the promised welfare for families and treatment of the wounded was financially not affordable for the Italian government. The loss of 650,000 young men meant the loss of the most productive part of society additionally to those 250,000 who were permanently disabled or the 585,000 people who died of famine or disease after or during the war. Therefore the war also had afflicting influence on the economy. Shortages of food and raw materials additionally to the inflation due to the printing of money to fund war expenses provoked price rises to up to 600 percent. Also the Spanish influenza epidemic in 1919 cost 500,000 lives.

Inevitably, frustration and hopelessness dominated Italian thinking and allowed, combined with previous political failure, radicalisation of popular opinion. The chaos caused by the war was omnipresent and people not associated with radical left wing politics felt there was a need to restore justice and safety. To what exact extend it helped Mussolini to rise to power is hard to quantify, but it is for sure that the impact of the war was socially, economically and politically huge which paved the seedbed for fascism. The disappointed soldiers were easily convinced by the authoritarian principles of fascism as they reflect the hierarchic order of the army and therefore offered a new opportunity for these soldiers to win the war against communism in their own country after the “mutilated victory” of 1919.

This futile situation

As the war was also the first collective nation experience, it strengthened the belief in nationalistic values after the “betrayal” of Versailles. In this desperate situation the minds of the Italian people were very perceptive for a pure Italian movement which promised to restore glory and was led by a powerful orator. This leads us to out next aspect to be evaluated.

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This futile situation

A Key factor that enabled the Fascists to rise to power was Mussolini’s charismatic personality and his way of handling events and his ability to detect and use possibilities. First, Mussolini was a calculative demagogue who was due to his previous experience as a journalist a perfect orator who could appeal to visceral feelings of the masses to gain loyalty by his followers and public mass attention. Second, Mussolini was an opportunist. Among his followers there were people from diverging background such as Catholics, Workers, Peasants, Bourgeoisie , Monarchists and Soldiers. His ability of negotiating and seizing opportunities enabled him to get the support of Catholics and at some point even the support of Giolitti. Mussolini also knew, that the King and his advisors were the people to be convinced of his suitability in order to become Prime Minister. The March on Rome was practically on the King’s doorstep and had an impact on his decision making.

Italy has been ruled by a liberal Government since its unification in 1861. But the system has failed to solve problems or to create a stable government. First, the constant changing coalition governments inevitably meant inconsistency and insecurity. Furthermore, throughout the time of liberal Italy, a small group of elites has crystallised out. The “transformismo” system was based on deals among the ruling liberal politicians. They focused on how to distracted from problems rather than solving them. This was therefore a system of rigidity and very little progression. This government also depended until 1912 on a tiny electorate and its mandate was therefore questionable. This means that the work of the government was rarely agreed with and the list of unresolved problems grew immensely during the period of Liberalism in Italy. Due to tension between the papal states and Italy, the pope called upon the Catholics not to participate in politics until the Populari party was founded after the war. This was a massive problem as it has not been resolved until Mussolini came to power and therefore a huge part of the population was alienated. Moreover, the government failed to introduce a fully functioning welfare system as it could be found in other European states and failed to restore the economy after the war. Another factor that undermined liberal hegemony was the fact that politics polarised. After the Russian revolution Marxist groups were increasing in numbers and riots spread immensely.

On the left end of the political spectrum the shift to the extreme had to be compensated by nationalist and fascist organisations on the other. This drew the mass away from central politics. In addition, after the old constituencies had been dissolved and proportional representation was introduced, other political parties were able to proliferate.

These were perfect conditions for Mussolini to rise to power very quickly. His idea was that, even though originally invented by d’Annunzio but new to the general public and represented something “true Italian” instead of the Liberal system imposed by the ruling elites of northern Italy which gave him massive support form souther rural areas. The unstable conditions were also relevant, later when Mussolini consolidates his power. The negative experience form the past has thought the Italians that Liberalism was not in the best interest of the Italian people but just in the interest of a selfish group of already privileged members that did a lot in order to stay in power. Mussolini was a contrasting figure. He was a sensational journalist which gathered a group of thugs with the mission to restore Italian glory of the Roman Empire. Besides the fact that he lacked a clear manifesto or ideology, his enthusiasm attracted many of those who were disappointed by the previous rule and those who gave him a chance to fulfil his vague promises.

When Russia became Communist, the fear of Bolshevism spreading was feared by many European nations. The fear of a “red revolution” was also present in Italian society. Especially the more middle class who had earned money and property felt that communism was an alien invasion form Russia which could threaten their status in society. The Bienno Rosso were a key period of post-war crisis as general strikes which started 1919 in Milan seemed to threaten the last remains of the Italian economy. In Florence a Soviet Republic was set up and on the countryside those frustrated walking behind the red flag threw landowners out of their homes and seized their land. Italy seemed at the brink of revolution. Middle class shop keepers of similar people felt alienated by these radical left-wing activities and feared a communist revolution. However, evidence suggests that the socialist were just making a lot of noise and provoking attention even though their actual potential to take over was relatively low.

The fear of communism was an important factor that made people follow Mussolini. The spread of communism seemed like an invasion form the east trying to take over Italy. The bienno rosso was also seen as more deteriorating rather than improving. This shows, that communism as regarded with suspicion by the Italian Population. However, more importantly, the King was also one of those who feared a communist takeover and was therefore more likely to give in on Mussolini who offered true Italian values.

Terror was already omnipresent in the run up to the Fascist takeover. Just two constituencies in northern Italy organised minor suppression of right-wing attacks which means that terror was a successful mean to consolidate influence.

Returning soldiers who were unemployed after the war felt left behind by Italian society. They were the ideal basis for a paramilitary force. They had the equipment and knew how to use it and were disciplined and loyal to whoever comes along promising to restore Italian glory after the disastrous war.

The Squadristi, the fascist paramilitary force developed into a national fascist institution. As violence was particularly important for almost every fascist the Squadristi made up the main part of the fascist movement. Besides terrorising the 1920 elections the March on Rome was probably their most clear demonstration of their power and willingness to change the current situation. Even though it was relatively unsuccessful as lots of fascists stranded outside Rome, the March on Rome had a visual impact on Italian society and especially on the King as it was in front of his doorstep. But even though he has not initiated the March on Rome, it was Balbo, it clearly favoured his personal reputation. For the Squadristi it seemed like a seizure of power which strengthened the cohesion within the Fascist party. It also seemed to the King, that Mussolini had massive support which was probably the reason for him not ordering the army to crush down the Fascists. The indirect support of the King was crucial to help Mussolini to get attention and gave the impression of a revolution. This leads to ease in his seizure of power.

In conclusion, the popular support at that point was relatively unimportant as the 35 seat in Parliament show. The most important figure in order to make him Prime Minister was the King. As Mussolini had managed to integrate Catholics the King sympathised with him. The March on Rome and the seemingly big public support enable Mussolini to move into the focus of King Emanuel. Also the fear of Communism was pressing the King to appoint Mussolini Prime Minister as he seemed able to deal with the Marxist revolutionaries.

Laurenz Boss