Historical Investigation: On the Greco-Persian Wars, circum 490 BCE

Authors Avatar
A. Plan of Investigation:

This essay examines how the battles of Marathon, Thermopylae and Artemisium influenced the course of the Greco-Persian Wars in the period 492 to 479 BC. It also assesses the extent to which they did so. It examines the influence of the battles on the morale, tactics and decisions of the Greeks. It looks at the effects on both sides where it later affected the Greeks but not the effect of the battles throughout the Greco-Persian Wars, which ended in 386 BC. It does not examine the course of the battles themselves; nor does it seek to hypothesise over how the war would have progressed differently had the outcomes of the battle differed from reality. The investigation assesses two sources for origins, purpose, value and limitations. The sources assessed are Tom Holland's 'Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West' and Herodotus' 'Histories', which, although not often referred to itself, is the source of almost all knowledge of the period and all the other sources draw on it heavily.

B. Summary of Evidence:

The Battle of Marathon occurred in 490 BC as the result of the first major expedition (an amphibious operation1) by the Persians into central Greece. At this point Greece was fragmented, ruled by innumerable city-states. Although these Greeks did share a common heritage, most of this consisted of killing or enslaving each other2. It was mostly because of this that the Athenian army faced the Persian army virtually alone (although Spartan reinforcements were on their way, 'delayed' by a religious festival3). 10,000 Athenians and 1000 Plataeans faced anywhere between 20,000 and 100,000 Persians. The Persians were routed, losing 6400 men and 12 ships whereas the Athenians lost only 192 and the Plataeans lost 11 - most of these casualties were incurred not in the battle but when attempting to board the beached ships4. This battle became incredibly important during the next Persian expedition, as it proved that the Greeks could defeat a force of Persians far greater than their own. It demonstrated that the heavy Greek weapons and armour were far superior to that of the Persians, which was designed for desert warfare. In the next expedition, the Persians tried to avoid set-piece 'line battles' in narrow valleys which would prevent them from surrounding and overwhelming the Greek phalanges. This forced the Greeks to try and occupy 'choke-points' or employ much more subtle tactics. Apart from its massive morale boost and effectiveness as a rallying cry, it also had a much more subtle effect. After the Battle of Marathon, Themistocles5 was one of the few who recognised that the Persians would probably send another expedition. The Persians had been so comprehensively defeated that many refused to recognise this. When it became alarmingly clear that the Persians were going to invade again, the upper and middle classes were against his naval tactics as it would mean less glory for them - using the political rallying cry of 'the men of Marathon'6. At many times, Themistocles' naval tactics were nearly over-ruled yet it was these tactics which were responsible for the defeat of the Persians and provided the basis of Athenian power for the next century7. Had the Battle of Marathon not been such a success, it is probable that the Athenians would not have been so over-confident and not so against naval operations.
Join now!


The Battle of Thermopylae is much more famous than its naval counterpart, the Battle of Artemisium. These battles were the first important clashes between Greek (who, by this time, had united under a war council, each city sending delegates with plenipotentiary powers8) and Persian forces of the second major Persian expedition. By establishing themselves in a choke-point, through which the Persians had no option but to pass through, the Spartans and their 20009 allies (other allies having evacuated when it was clear that no reinforcements were being sent) at their last stand inflicted massive casualties on the Persian ...

This is a preview of the whole essay