The Black Death in Ireland
The Black Death arrived in Ireland in late July 1348 through the County (Co) Dublin port of Howth and continued to decimate the country until 1349 . From Howth it spread to Dublin, Drogheda, Dundalk and following this, in the autumn it reached inland, in particular the manors of Louth, Meath and Co Dublin, before infecting people in Waterford including traders, which eventually carried the disease up the river Nore to Kilkenny . All of Ireland suffered, however 40 percent of the colonising population is supposed to have died . Due to the scarcity of manorial records and other sources, it is impossible to detail the exact extent of mortality , except in Colemanstown in the royal manor of Newcastle Lyons in Co Dublin, where it is said 84% of the tenants were killed by the plague . Ireland was however impoverished by the Black Death and its considerable impact is evident by one of the most poignant testimonies to its existence coming from an Irish priest . It is also notable that in countries where the plague was not as destructive, the changes were less visible than those in Ireland, and that the course of the Black Death imitated the path seen elsewhere. The pestilence is reported to have been more rampant in the towns and ports , and therefore it raged more fiercely among the English colony compared with the native Irish.
The Rivalry for Political Power between the English and the Irish in Ireland before the Black Death
The situation before the Black Death and the situation after the Black Death must be compared in order to highlight its impact on the struggle for political power. The first invaders into Ireland were the Gaels who assimilated the native customs into their own on settling . A Viking invasion followed in the eighth century with the Vikings also adapting to Irish ways through intermarrying and accepting power structures . It is this Ireland which will be referred to as 'native Irish'; hence the English invasion followed the Gaelic and Viking invasions. Prior to the English invasion, Ireland was governed and ruled over by a series of Kings who ruled a certain portion of the country (a lordship) and who were overseen by a more powerful and somewhat central High King . Unfortunately this power structure led to numerous civil disruptions which eventually led to the English invasion. On one such occasion, Dermot MacMurrough, an unpopular, power-hungry Gaelic lord or King, failed in usurping the High King, and so had to flee Ireland. Later, however, he returned with an army of troops after seeking the help of King Henry II of England . With an army of Normans, Welshmen and Flemings, he defeated the High King O'Conner on the second attempt, thereby becoming the new High King . Following this success, MacMurrough gave his daughter to Richard de Clare, otherwise known as 'Strongbow', one of the Marcher Lords of Wales who was partially responsible for his victory. This would start the popular tradition of English-Irish intermarriage which permitted the Gaelicisation of the settlers and would continue for a long period . Eventually when MacMurrough died in 1171, and his power was to be passed on to Strongbow, no such precedent existed in Irish law, as the wider royal family elected the new kings . The feuding for control over most of Ireland was between Strongbow and MacMurrough's nephew . Thus, through the English invasion, the Irish were somewhat suppressed and their traditional power structures challenged . Although Strongbow won the feud, Henry II, King of England believed him to be a powerful threat and so intervened . Among the Irish Kings, Henry was perceived to be a fair-minded ruler with interests in Ireland other than his own, and they hence greeted him on arrival in the country .
Henry reformed the church and gained support from the Irish Kings, thus Ireland was beginning to run in an English manner . Meanwhile, due to the ease with which Strongbow seemed to exploit Ireland, a flow of immigrants from England resulted . Furthermore, Henry bestowed grants of land on his barons which attracted immigrants and increased the Crown’s control . Yet, the settlement of these immigrants was fragmented, with a majority of settlers residing near of the points of disembarkation, that is to say Dublin and the south-east . Settlers supposedly did not over-run the Irish but only displaced them and pushed them aside . English influence had expanded to cover three-quarters of Ireland (bar pockets of resistance like Ulster) by the middle of the thirteenth century . At this time, Henry's son, John, brought the Irish legal system into line with that of the English . England's influence had slightly diminished to only two-thirds of Ireland by the beginning of the fourteenth century . In relation to England's diminishing control of Ireland, settlement was beginning to become more defined into an area surrounding Dublin known as 'the Pale' . The Irish had retreated to hills, woods and hiding places in bog-country as they were no match for the Anglo-Norman armies with superior weaponry, armour and skills . However the Irish were within pouncing distance and could easily seize back their old property . In fact, due to intermarriage, although the names of Normandy were most prevalent east of Shannon in Ireland, the real holders of the names were more commonly the sons of Irish mothers or grandsons of Gaelic lords .
In relation to government, a justiciar or king’s lieutenant was chosen with the role of heading a supposedly central government in Dublin . The Irish parliaments were summoned and representatives were elected . The parliament continued to publish and promulgate English law through holding assemblies and parliaments and tried to prevent subdivision of lordships, which promoted rebellion of the native Irish . Thus, the English colony was strengthened and securely established by the early fourteenth century. Both the Irish and the English had small advancements in their campaigns against one another before the Black Death. In the early fourteenth century the native Irish recovered ground in the form of weaker settlements and encircled strong ones, essentially disrupting communications and causing isolation of the settlements . Other factors contributed to resurgence in the first part of the fourteenth century, namely sharpened military tactics, a weak central administration and improved leadership . Therefore, it is evident that the Irish were beginning to retaliate in terms of the contest for political power before the Black Death.
The Rivalry for Social and Cultural Dominance in Ireland before the Black Death
Similarly, a background into the cultural conflict in Ireland is necessary to understand whether the Black Death influenced the rivalry between the Irish and English. 'Gaelicisation' is essentially "a breaching of the boundaries of Anglo-Norman language and custom as they interacted with the Gaelic-Irish" (O'Keeffe, 12). Therefore Gaelicisation includes intermarriages, along with the preference of the Irish language, dress, customs, and changing to a Gaelic form of one's name. Initially Gaelicisation began with Strongbow's marriage, however it then continued and was rampant in the first half of the fourteenth century . Although the Normans and English had a culture of their own, their culture was merely absorbed into the internal politics of Ireland and as such, due to Gaelicisation and merging of cultures, the Normans were reportedly "more Irish than the Irish themselves" . On the other hand, there was also 'Anglicisation' which involved similar aspects as Gaelicisation bar the fact that for Anglicisation it was in fact the native Irish who were conforming to the invaders' ways . However even the English immigrants and Anglicised Irishmen were well aware that they would never completely be accepted as English and thus called themselves 'the middle nation' . One example of Anglicisation is that only Anglicised Irishmen were allowed in Dublin, i.e. they had to don English attire, speak English and have an allegiance to England . It is reported that although the Irish paid tribute to the English, they remained living the same as they had been, thereby resisting Anglicisation . In fact, the old Gaelic lords of the west continued their Irish ways of living and even turned their back on the assimilated east, creating a divide . Furthermore, in royal courts and courts of the lordship, the Irish customs had no validity, the language had no legal status and the Gaelic cousins or normal families had no legal personality - society was legally in two separate worlds . Not surprisingly, in an attempt to seemingly highlight this divide, Irish parliament soon passed a law to prohibit the wearing of Gaelic dress by the colonisers . In relation to currency, unfortunately there was a lack of flow of immigrants from England; therefore the Normans had to use the Irish Septs . Clearly, the state of the cultural dominance rivalry is that the Irish culture was already encroaching on the life of the English-Norman immigrants before the Black Death.
Most historical texts, particularly Maria Kelly’s ‘A History of the Black Death in Ireland’, claim that the Black Death affected the ports and towns more severely and thus led to the decimation of the colony, reducing the English settlers' already few numbers by 40%. This was due to the fact that the pestilence spread rapidly like a modern day virus and therefore it raged in places where people lived in close proximity but not amongst the native Irish who lived in the open in a less densely populated fashion . Furthermore the trading connections provided opportunities for the plague to be transmitted between towns, and the environmental conditions were also a contributing factor . As testimony to this is the fact that most people in manors in Ireland were victims of the plague, as were townspeople and yeomen settlers . This demographic decline on the English side led to weakened military defences . Therefore, according to most sources, the colony was depleted and its settlers were as a result more vulnerable against the native Irish and less able to defend themselves in relation to the mercenaries being employed from the Western Isles, hence aiding the native Irish in the so-called race-war. The settlers were conscious of their vulnerability and were distressed by the fact . The Black Death also left plenty of resources for the survivors, because of minimal competition afterwards . On the other hand, it supposedly had no effect on the geography of the island, which influences political elements, albeit, with settlement still dispersed and disconnected . However, the Irish chieftains appeared to gain ground, territorially speaking . In fact, because of the visitation of the Black Death the Irish were believed to have terrified the colony by fighting back while it was in a vulnerable state .
State of Rivalry for Political Power after the Black Death
Although the Black Death greatly affected Ireland in terms of mortality, this may not have had repercussions in terms of the political situation; hence the state of the rivalry for political power after the Black Death must be examined. Immediately after the Black Death, a majority of the settlers were assimilating into and accepting Irish customs and law, consequently reducing England's influence . Not surprisingly, this proved motivational for the Irish in the race-war . The establishment of a small, specific region over which the Crown had jurisdiction, i.e. the 'Pale', was particularly noticeable after the Black Death . If Irish were found there, they were hunted down . The Pale was of course where the Crown claimed its subjects, for which it provided basic government services but also from which it demanded taxes and obedience . In the Pale the settlers remained in touch with England, resisting local influences and adopting English political and law systems, namely establishing a parliament and replicating England's legal and institutional modifications . Other centres of English power also existed including the Butlers of Ormond, the FitzGeralds of Desmond and the FitzGeralds of the plains of Kildare, which served as intermediaries between the Crown and the rest of Gaelic Ireland as well as administrators . Settlers outside of the Pale and in particular the Irish, were not taken as subjects, however, as the kings of England were neither politically apt, nor willing, to exert authority over land and people beyond the Pale, and even inside the Pale its efforts were to a certain extent futile . Although the more distant settlers assimilated completely, generally on the border of the Pale acknowledgement of England's jurisdiction was second to a lack of abiding by the English king's authority .
Despite the fact that the colony in Ireland was autonomous, it is important to note that it was unusual for medieval governments to be interventionist and therefore Ireland's position was commonplace . On the other hand, certain settler magnates in Ireland were assigned the position of viceroy and as such were delegated with the king’s duties and thus were responsible for the Pale, particularly administration and protection, entailing diplomatic relations with Irish and colonial lordships . Due to the developing increasing isolation of the position of viceroy for the earls of Kildare, the majority of the Pale’s inhabitants were discontent . This was as a result of the belief that due to Kildare's position, their rights as subjects were not completely reproduced and that he prevented the potential success of the Crown's authority in Ireland due to personal interests and therefore their security and prosperity were in jeopardy . The viceroy was, however, powerless against the refusal of citizens to abide by the decrees and would have enforced them if a large scale war would not have broken out . Furthermore, Mike Cronin believed that royal intervention was important due to the dire circumstances, should the Crown’s authority in Ireland be recovered. From this it can be deduced that the English king’s power was receding after the Black Death and that even among most English communities the Crown possessed little control, to the point that the inhabitants of the Pale questioned their political situation. As such, the Black Death had significantly influenced the political rivalry in Ireland in favour of the native Irish.
State of Rivalry for Cultural Dominance after the Black Death
Mirroring the change in political power, Gaelicisation merely increased after the Black Death. In 1366, in order to prevent Gaelicisation, the English parliament, presided over by the English prince Lionel, performed successive acts of parliament which constituted the Statutes of Kilkenny . Intermarriage, gossipred and accepting Brehon law were considered High Treason . Meanwhile, other forms of Gaelicisation such as adopting Irish names or Irish forms of names as well as Irish dress, customs and language were met with forfeiture of all lands and tenements . Allowing Irish Septs to graze cattle on the Crown's land or allowing Irish tenants to hold by Gaelic tenures also met with a similar fate . Indulging Irish entertainers such as rhymers, taletellers or minstrels encountered heavy fines, Irish priests were forbidden from benefices and monastic establishments, and "the practice of coyne and livery was declared an abuse" . This proved futile, however, because the Crown seemed distant to the settlers and Gaelicisation was much more practical as a survival strategy . The Irish certainly did not fain become Anglicised, rejecting English law and norms, but instead, the settlers Gaelicised themselves. Even the king's deputies became Gaelicised in dress, language, custom and even in blood due to intermarriages and fosterage (the upbringing of children in other noble families, usually Irish ones in order to cement alliances) . Fosterage led to a generation of only partly Norman lords who were friends with the Irish, Irish-speakers and brought up the Irish so that after firstly tolerating them, they subsequently complied with Brehon law and were practically Irish clan chiefs . All this was true except for a majority of the Pale community. In fact, the Pale was the site where many an English merchant family terminated its education and following suit, its community spoke English .
Interestingly, a law was created which prevented the name-calling of 'Irish dog' or 'English hobby', thus being testimony to the hostility that had arisen between Englishmen born in Ireland and those born in England . Attesting to the difference between the two, the Irish had different names for the settlers, the 'Gall', and the native English, the 'Sanasagh' . Both this difference and the growing Gaelicisation were irrepressible . Nevertheless, to the Palesmen, the more distant settlers were still considered to be their fellows . Hence, through all of these prohibitions, it can be concluded that Gaelicisation was becoming more widespread after the Black Death, and so the plague had a relatively important impact on the rivalry for social and cultural dominance.
Conclusion
The research question of this paper was: How did the Black Death of 1348 impact on the rivalries for political power and social and cultural dominance between the Irish and English in Ireland? Reviewing historical sources, it is evident that the Black Death merely advanced the Gaelicisation and the diminishing political power of the English-Norman settlers.
The Black Death was discovered to have weakened the English-Norman colony in terms of numbers and consequently military defence. However, the Irish were relatively untouched by the Black Death and, as a result, advanced in terms of their position in the race-war by gaining control over more land and causing Gaelicisation to the point where a law was needed to intervene. Although both trends were seen as beginning before the Black Death, Gaelicisation also seemed to increase after the Black Death, and the political power of the English-Norman settlers, i.e., The Pale, was still diminishing. The idea that the Black Death had a significant, though not instigative impact on the race-war in Ireland is reflected through the consistent yet brief mention of the Black Death in relation to the rivalries in the historical texts referenced in this paper. Furthermore, other factors obviously impacted on the race-war during the period examined, such as suspected population growth in Gaelic Ireland and subsequent outbreaks of plague in the years following the Black Death.
Due to the Black Death being but a propellant for the trends in Ireland, it would be interesting to know what other specific factors significantly affected the race-war in Ireland and also whether the Black Death affected other race-wars such as one occurring in Egypt at the time. In relation to this topic specifically, as England contracted the plague before Ireland, a further area of study could be its impact on Ireland’s relations with England during the period of the Black Death and thus its implications for the race-war.