THE BRITISH ARRIVE…
In the 19th Century, the Church Missionary Society, founded by English Evangelical Anglicans, had set up in the Yoruba fishing village of Lagos and Ibadan, a part of the by then defunct Oyo Kingdom. Catholic missionaries were most prominent amongst the Igbo, as portrayed in Chinua Achebe’s Nigerian tragedy, Things Fall Apart. As documented by the novel, these Christians started to set up their own communities, often coming into conflict with the traditional rulers and elders. Indeed in 1849 John Beecroft, a British merchant, was made consul for a stretch of the West African coastline, with their main hub being the Niger Delta. In 1851, after two battles involving the use of British ships, a consul was established in Lagos. This move was seen to be both a humanitarian attempt to stem the flow of the slave trade and also to control the trade of Lagos and its hinterland This however, was only the beginning of what was soon to come- an imperialistically and economically motivated scramble for Africa.
Britain’s main reason for colonial invasion was to increase their commercial interests as well the wish to expand its Empire to trump that of the other European powers. Therefore, the British invaded various parts of Africa and began to draw its borders without consideration of the inhabitants of this continent. This showed that the British did not take into account possible issues such as ethnic tensions since people who didn’t even share a common language were made to live side by side. The Niger Delta was one region in West Africa which was invaded by the British, along with other Delta States to form an Oil Rivers Protectorate in 1891, later renamed the Niger Coast Protectorate in 1894. The Kingdoms of Benin, Ijebu and other villages and towns were all invaded and by 1900 had been merged with the Niger Coast Protectorate to form the Southern Nigeria Protectorate, Nigeria being a name coined by Flora Luisa Shaw, the wife of High Commissioner. Frederick Lugard. The Northern Nigeria Protectorate was formed in 1900 as well with the cities of Sokoto, Bornu as well as other Kingdoms nearby being captured. The colony around Lagos joined The Southern Nigerian Protectorate in 1906 and in 1914 the Southern Nigerian Protectorate and the Northern Nigeria Protectorate to form Nigeria. Many questions now arise about the British’s decision to create a country with people from different kingdoms, towns or indeed villages. This is a fatal flaw in the actions of the British. The British would have benefited since it would have mean possibly less future resistance from the Nigerians but it would also lead to future ethnic conflicts and therefore hamper the development of an independent Nigeria.
NATIONALISM AND INDEPENDENCE
A nationalistic sentiment was to build up amongst the Nigerian people, with nationalists wishing to not gain independence as the pre-colonial states but to instead be independent as one Nigeria. Various movements and societies grew with The Nigerian National Democratic Party and The National Congress of British West Africa being some examples. Indeed, the Great Depression which gripped the entire world also led to the growth of more nationalism as did the Second World War. The Nigerian armed forces felt that there was no difference between themselves and their white counterparts in battle and became indignant about their lower pay and the absent democracy in Nigeria.
There was bitter hostility between the Nigerian nationalists and the British administration, but this died down from 1950. Economic conditions were improving and Nigerians had been given a more acceptable constitution by the newly appointed Governor Sir John Macpherson . Preparations for independence were to get under way in 1957 and 1958 with a new federal constitution being drawn up and Nigerian delegates were chosen to represent each region in Nigeria so as to reflect the varying opinions. Finally, independence was achieved on the 1st October 1960 to huge celebrations. However, Britain's handling of the issue of independence had been flawed as they failed to take into account a number of factors. Firstly, minority ethnic groups had little say when it came to the creation of three independent regions within Nigeria (a Hausa-Fulani dominated Northern Region, a Yoruba dominated Western Region and an Igbo dominated Eastern Region). The British's reluctance to delay independence as well as the fears over more new minority regions being asked for and the expense involved meant that this problem was not properly dealt with by the special commission assigned to solving this problem. This would then lead to an air of resentment amongst the various ethnic groups of Nigeria and so conflicts or uprisings would break out later on in the future. Another issue with independence was that due to the colonial policies of the British, the Northern region had a limited number of educated people to take over important roles in politics and other public sector positions. This would then lead to inequity in Nigeria and could be complicit in the collapse of Nigeria in the long-run. The British would argue that it had taken centuries to evolve their political systems and so therefore Africa could not possibly be expected to achieve this overnight. This was more or less an admission that they had left their colonies unprepared for independence, as well as coming across a bit arrogant. Nevertheless, on 1st October 1963, The First Republic was proclaimed with Nnamdi Azikwe made the first President of Nigeria.
THE BLOODY COUPS
The inadequate way in which the British granted Nigeria independence made instability inevitable. The nationalistic sentiment which had helped to achieve independence was soon replaced by frustration and anger amongst the different ethnic groups of Nigeria. The Tiv, an ethnic group located in the in the Middle Belt area of Nigeria but part of the Northern region, staged an uprising in 1960-61 against the local authorities due to them being the victims of unrepresentative local administration. Another uprising followed in 1964, leading to the police and army units having to take action against their fellow citizens. This saw the death of thousands and left the Tiv even more disgruntled as well as a few of army officers disillusioned. More crises were to follow such as an economic recession which saw prices rise by 15 per cent, rising unemployment and low wages. Corruption was also believed to be rife with many accusing the central government being accused of rigging the 1964 elections.
The frustration of Nigerians at the central government and the regional premiers was to now result in a group of Igbo officers, led by Lieutenant Kaduna Nzeogwu, carrying out a military coup in January 1966. This led to the murders of Prime Minister Tafawa Balewa, as well as the premiers of the Western and Northern regions, Chief Samuel Akintola and Sir Ahmadu Bello. This was a major flaw in the perpetrators’ actions. These killings were highly unnecessary as this meant that the people of Nigeria, more specifically those who were from the North felt that this was a mission to impose Igbo power on the country. This may not have been the coup plotters aim but the fact that those involved were mostly of Eastern origin meant that the already present ethnic tensions were going to lead to anti-Igbo sentiment. The table below shows the number of senior officers who were killed or survived the January coup.
TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF SENIOR OFFICERS KILLED AND SURVIVING COUP OF JANUARY 1966
Indeed, this was the case when in between Tuesday 24th May and the following weekend, hundreds of Igbos in the Northern cities of Kano, Kaduna and Zaria were killed in pogroms initiated either spontaneously, or by civil servants, ex-politicians and businessmen whom had been deprived or could potentially be deprived of their jobs under the new regime, headed by General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi. The government then made a fatal mistake when they broadcast an appeal for Igbos who had fled from the North to return to their homes “as the situation had quietened down”.
There was to be a turning point in this saga when a group of Northern soldiers seized General Ironsi and the West’s Military General, took them to the outskirts of Ibadan (a city in the Western region) and murdered them. Riots occurred in the Northern region and there were revolts in various barracks, with the army being purged of those of Igbo origin, with 43 officers as well as 170 other ranks, the vast majority of whom were of Eastern origin, being killed. Yakubu Gowon, a Northerner and Chief of Staff, was made Head of State. Further bloodshed was to follow with a second pogrom being unleashed against the Igbo people in the North being massacred- between 10,000 and possibly 30,000 perished from the end of September into October. As a result, one million Igbos fled to the Eastern region and obstructed Gowon's attempts to produce a new system of government. Finding a leader in Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu who had been the army governor in the Eastern region, the Eastern Region was declared independent in May 1967. This region was subsequently named the Republic of Biafra and being such an oil rich region, the loss of such a region would have been detrimental to an already weak economy and so war between Nigeria and Biafra was declared on 6 July 1967. Whilst the problems between 1960 and 1967 may have had some British influence, it was essentially the greed and mismanagement of the Nigerians in power which proved to be the bigger factor in the build up to civil war.
BRITAIN AND THE BIAFRAN WAR
The British, under the Harold Wilson administration supported the Nigerian Government and this played a major role in the outcome of the war. Britain’s interest in Nigeria was purely imperialistic and Nigeria was seen as a market. Biafra’s attempt at partition was viewed to be harmful to the market and so Britain felt that some sort of intervention was necessary. Britain became a key arms supplier to Nigeria and aid for Gowon arrived in increasingly large quantities. This support helped Nigeria maintain its attack on the Biafran forces and the British tried their best to deny any involvement for fear of a lack of confidence from the British people. Britain‘s deception was to be exposed on 29th January 1968 when the anti-war activist Lord Brockway put a question to Lord Shepherd, then Minister of State for the Commonwealth, in the Lords. Shepherd first gave a generic answer, but upon further interrogation, later admitted that "While we deplore the tragic and sad civil war in Nigeria, we have been supplying Nigeria with pretty well all its military equipment, and in the present circumstances we think that we should continue to supply reasonable quantities of arms to the legal Government of Nigeria.” Shepherd then went on to say that none of the weapons can be described as mass destructive weapons. However, examination of hundreds of Nigerian shell cases showed that they were clearly marked ‘UK Government explosives- War Department/Army’. This contravened completely with Lord Shepherd’s admission, especially since ‘November 1967’, the manufacture date was stencilled on the sides. This was damning evidence as it proved that Britain had indeed aided the Nigerians to fight what was a barbaric war despite her initial denials.
The war raged on for three years and was indeed one of the bloodiest conflicts in post-colonial African history. Blockades where put up by the Nigerians to cut off the flow of supplies and aid into Biafra, a shameless move which saw between 500,000 and two million civilian deaths, mostly down to disease and hunger. In the end, it was Nigeria who was victorious, with 4.6 million Biafrans becoming refugees and Biafra's attempt at partition and independence leading only to failure. The scars of the war, however, were to remain for decades to come.
THE SECOND REPUBLIC
The post-war recovery was surprisingly swift, with Gowon showing considerable statesmanship. He made every effort to reconcile the Igbos and encouraged them to return to their previous jobs in the other parts of the country. A new federal system of twelve states was created and with Nigeria’s oil in high demand, it looked like prosperity and stability was to finally come for Nigeria. The British had finally left Nigeria to its own affairs, merely keeping a close watch.
However, things were to once again unravel with the price of oil falling and the trade balance becoming a deficit in 1983. Despite being elected for a further four year term in August 1983, President Shehu Shagari was overthrown in a military coup by Major-General Bukhari. This was in response to the mismanagement of the economy and corruption caused by Shagari’s government. However Bukhari was to be overthrown himself and the new president, Major-General Babaginda, pledged to develop the non-oil side of the economy, focusing on the expansion of rice, maize and fish production. However, yet another blow was to come to the Nigerian economy in 1986 when oil prices fell to as low as 10 dollars a barrel- a disaster for the government which had based its 1986 budget calculations on a price of 23.50 dollars a barrel, forcing them to have to take out a loan from the World Bank.
Nevertheless, local and state elections were held in 1990 and 1991 however, and it looked as if a return to civilian rule would be possible. However, hopes were dashed when General Sani Abacha forced Babaginda to resign in a bloodless coup, claiming that the elections had been rigged. His rule was to prove to be a repressive dictatorship, with mass corruption and the abuse of human rights. The final straw was the execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa, an author and critic of the government. He was executed after being found guilty of dubious murder charges, sparking global outrage and leading to the expulsion of Nigeria from the Commonwealth, as well as economic sanctions being imposed by the UN. Abacha remained unmoved and maintained that power would be handed to a democratically elected president when he felt ready. It was only until his death in June 1988 that power was to be handed to a democratically elected president with Abdulsalami Abubakar, Abacha’s successor handing power over to civilian elected Olusegun Obasanjo. These short-run issues cannot be attributed to the former British colonial masters- these problems were as a result of the mismanagement of governmental affairs at the hands of the Nigerian leaders once again
PROBLEMS OF TODAY
Today, Nigeria’s main problem is the oil industry in the Niger Delta region. The Delta region has been suffering from regular oil spills due to poorly maintained equipment, which have polluted rivers and have helped to ruin the livelihoods of fishing communities living on the coastline. The incessant gas flares of the oil refineries have caused acid rain, leading to crops failing and water supplies have been poisoned.
Furthermore, the perpetual corruption of Nigerian politicians has led to the people of the Niger Delta or indeed, the whole of Nigeria, not benefitting from Nigeria’s oil output. This has led to militant groups such as MEND (Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta) forming. Groups such as this claim to be fighting to expose the exploitation of the people of Niger Delta and have been responsible for a large number of kidnappings against oil workers- both foreign and domestic.
Ethnic and religious tensions also persist to this day, with most of the conflict taking place in the Plateau State, situated in Nigeria’s Middle Belt region. Cities such as Jos have witnessed fighting between the Muslim Hausa-Fulani tribes and other ethnic tribes who follow the Christian religion, such as the Berom, Tarok and the Igbos, over disputed land as well as political power. This has led to the deaths of many civilians and whilst the government continues to make attempts to quell the unrest, these have proved to be of limited success. Indeed these issues can be attributed to the way in which 150 different ethnic groups were merged into one country by the British without regard to the problems later in the future. However, much of these issues also lie in the corruption of individual politicians, thus leading to beliefs that one ethnic group is trying to oppress the other. These are issues which the Nigerian government has failed to address sufficiently.
CONCLUSION
Britain’s colonial legacy is one which has affected not just Nigeria, but countries all over Africa and other continents. The artificial creation of Nigeria was one which would lead to numerous problems in the future because of the way in which the country was divided into three regions, with the North being the most populated. This meant that certain ethnic groups were able to dominate and so unrest was bound to happen. The British failed to foresee the problem that merging people of a different language, religion and culture would mean that once these people were granted independence, underlying tensions would turn into unrest. Indeed as mentioned before, these problems persist to this day. Britain’s interests in Nigeria continued to be of an imperialistic, as opposed to a holistic, nature after independence and this only served to aggravate Nigeria’s problems, with the Nigerian Civil War being a prime example. Their assistance helped to prolong the war and led to countless, unnecessary deaths.
However, it was not the British who fought the war. The Nigerians have to be held responsible for their failure to maintain their nationalistic sentiment, ultimately leading to ethnic animosity and festering hatred. The constant cycle of corruption, nepotism and favouritism towards those of the same ethnicity or religion as the ruling powers meant that money was siphoned out of a country which should be one the richest countries in the world. The years of military rule after the war had nothing to do with the British but instead were down to the greed of certain individuals, who instead of trying to help their fellow Nigerian’s, opted to line their own pockets. Whilst Nigeria’s legacy was first put down by Britain, those in power have not been able to shape it for the good of the people. That is why I believe that Britain can only be held responsible for Nigeria’s extent to a limited extent. Much of Nigeria’s problems today, lie on the country’s own doorstep.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
List of sources:
BOOKS
-
Achebe, Chinua, Things Fall Apart (1958), William Heinemann Ltd
-
Ajayi, Isaac , The Military and the Nigerian State: 1966-1993 (2007), African World Press
-
Arnold, Guy. Africa: A Modern History (2005), Atlantic Books
-
Forsyth, Frederick. The Biafra Story (1969), Pen & Sword Books
-
Ikeazor, Chukwudum. Nigeria 1966: the Turning Point (1997), New Millennium
-
Isichei, Elizabeth. A History Of Nigeria (1987), Oxford University Press
-
Lowe, Norman. Mastering Modern World History (3rd Edition), Macmillan
-
Poulton, Richard. A History Of The Modern World, Oxford University Press
-
Shaw, Thurstan. Nigeria: Its archaeology and early history(1978), Thames and Hudson
-
Soyinka, Wole. The Open Sore of a Continent (1996), Oxford University Press
I would also like to thank Dr Ruth Watson, university lecturer in African History at Newnham College, Cambridge for recommending me a number of my sources.
WEBSITES
- http://www.artfoundgallery.com
- http://www.bbc.co.uk
- http://www.chrishondros.com
- http://www.english.emory.edu
- http://www.guardian.co.uk
- http://www.hansard.milibanksystems.com
- http://www.waado.org
- http://www.wikipedia.org
APPENDIX
http://www.chrishondros.com/work_int/nigeria/nigeria_01.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_civil_war-
http://www.english.emory.edu/Bahri/Part.html
A History of the Modern World, Richard Poulton, Oxford University Press, p. 322
A History Of Nigeria, Elizabeth Isichei, Oxford University Press, p. 90
Nigeria: Its archaeology and early history, Thurstan Shaw, Thames and Hudson, p. 121
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_Nigeria
Nigeria 1966: The Turning Point, Chukwudum Ikeazor, New Millennium, p. 30
Mastering Modern World History, Norman Lowe, Macmillan p. 461
The Military and the Nigerian State: 1966-1993, Isaac Ajayi, African World Press, p. 50
The Biafra Story, Frederick Forsyth, Pen & Sword Books, p. 154
http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/lords/1968/jan/29/arms-exports-to-nigeria
http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/gallery/2010/mar/05/curse-black-gold-nigeria?picture=360077948
