Charlemagne –‘Revival of Rome’
- his reign marked by continuous war + Frankish tradition of grants to nobles to retain their fidelity…war was important for the latter
- 1st series of wars w/Xian neighbours -Aquitainians (769) – Bavarians (787-8) and Bretons (786-799)
- 2nd series of wars was w/Lombards in central Italy, on behalf of Pope – he went into N. Italy and took crown of Lombardy as protector of Pope – 1st step toward revival of Xian Empire
- 3rd- series of war against Saxons (who were situated between the Elbe + Rhine to North) bet’n 772 – 80 – these campaigns were important in allowing him to secure rest of his territory.
- 4th- series of wars against Avars (Finnish stock) in Hungary
- in last 2 series – Charlemagne gains notoriety as leading the forces of Christendom against Heathen enemies.….however, the initiative came from the Pope…inseparable nature of Pope to Charlemagne is set-up.
- Christmas day, 800 AD = coronation as Emperor consecrated this dual relationship as leaders of Christendom.
- however within 50 yrs. Charlemagne Empire had splintered
- 843. A.D Treaty of Verdun – settled + divided Louis Pious (son of Charlemagne) lands into 3, bet’n his sons Charles the Bald, Lewis the Germ + Lothar
a) West Francia (Charles) – now France, from Pyrenees to Somme, the Meuse + Rhone
b) East Francia (Louis) – Saxony, Bavaria + Lands east of Rhine
c) Middle Kingdom (Lothar) – lands E + W of Rhine – Burgundy, Provence + lands in Italy (including Rome) – divided again after his death.
- by end of 9th cent – E + W kingdoms spoke indistinguishable dialects + rivalry of kings undermined their control of their own territorial realms in favour of local nobles.
Holy Roman Emperor (of the German Nation)
- East Franks, for decades, were confronted w/enemy Avars…Avars didn’t farm and lived off of their ‘plunder + tribute’…Avars raided Italy + West Franks.
- organized resistance was imperative…in 919 CE the crown of East Frank kingdom passed to Henry I, duke of Saxony (one of 4 duchies including. Bavaria, Swabia + Franconia)
- Henry defeats Avars at Lech in 933 and his son Otto, carrying lance of Emperor Constantine delivered final blow against Avars
– 961 CE Otto lead army to deal w/troubles in N. Italy…in 962 he is crowned (German) ‘Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire’
-Otto saw his answer to troubles in ruling as curbing independence of dukes + balancing their power w/great landed wealth of the German Church…for the next 100’s of year the support of leading Churchmen (nominated by Emperor) was key to imperial rule
- like Charlemagne, Otto fused partnership of temporal leader of Christian Church…. regional differences, blood and power differences remained the case in Germany until 19th.
Medieval Societies
- econ. life at end of antiquity had declined severely…towns and trade had gone into state of dissipation in the western part of Roman Empire…communications also broke down spelling the end of central gov’t…what enabled survival was that of the manor or the individual self-sufficient estate survived…while there was no ↓ in production, trade “ceased” as manors were producing for subsistence…serfdom evolved as leading econ. institution
1) Manor (self-sufficient econ. unit) – included a number of peasants, church, mill, blacksmith shop, wine press….nearby was manor house or castle (inhabited by the lord) and surrounding the little village were the fields, pasture and forests…customs developed that governed internal relations
2) Serfdom – serfs could not leave manor as they were tied by laws and econ. necessity….no personal or econ freedoms were permitted…no outside econ. activity, no marriage without permission…serfs owed taxes – money and in ‘kind’
- politically, socially and economically serfs were bound to the manor…but, got food, clothing, shelter and protection in return – therefore, serfdom served the purpose of social and econ. foundation for the Middle Ages, protecting the weak during times of need
- trade decreased during Rome’s decline and the period afterward – doesn’t really pick-up until 1100’s…historical reasons:
a) Vandals had cut trade flows to Italy from Africa – then Justinian dealt with them and restored trade possibilities in the Mediterrean
b) then Arabs seized N.African coasts causing a halting of trade– later Arabs revived trade
- slave trade grew and many were from Eastern Europe (often were Slavs)
- bright spots : a) continued trade w/Byzantium b) trade in North w/Scandinavians
The Feudal Order
- possession of land is supreme determinant of social order during Medieval times …the warriors of ‘barbarian’ tribes evolved into landowners….the landowners became nobles, which along w/church + kings = ruling class
- system worked when lands, granted by kings or princes to nobles (who became his ‘vassals’) in return nobles repay favour w/ service
-important mechanism to re-establishing geographical and political unity, since the business of governing (administration) after Rome was heavily decentralized (partly as there weren’t enough literate or skilled persons)…Feudalism grew to be the binding political and social structure of the Medieval Ages
– feudalism as a system presupposes Crown (king) lands…beginning in 850 A.D Kings and the dynasties (they are trying to establishing for themselves) are using feudalism to give centrality and structure to their domains…at the top of the Medieval social hierarchy sat the king w/supreme authority….and under are tiers of vassals (the upper nobility) and underneath them, according to rank (wealth and name), were lesser nobles
- the king gave land and goods for ‘service’, either 1) military and 2) advice
- therefore, the hierarchy = knight→barons→counts→dukes→kings (top)….at the bottom of the order were the free tenant farmers, then ‘serfs’, then slaves (more numerous in southern vs. northern Europe)…land (goods) for service established.obligation bet’n superior + inferior
- How did feudalism evolve? - Roman + Germanic custom favoured the institution of interdependence…for Rome, a) clientship built bonds between the powerful and the in service of wealth and b) local nobles across the Empire helped administer the Empire through service to Rome’s local magistrate…for the Germanic, vassals pledged to honour vendettas and offer arms in battle
- under Carolingians vassals pay kings homage and in return are invested with duties that can’t be refused…took oath of loyalty…in this way vassals could increase their influence
- therefore feudalism is a fusion of service and administration…kings and a powerful aristocracy consolidated their position in a new permanent order.
- Europe, except much of Italy, Spain, + South France was divided into fiefs (feudal units) based on obligation to a lord → corporations might be lords/vassals… … so too might an abbot of a monastery
- the warrior element to feudalism slowly developed…between the 7th – 8th cent A.D a knightly class of professional cavalrymen, maintained by the lord grows…the lord promises to feed them + give them horses…within this ‘warrior’ level aristocracy of the Middle Ages were European values in the making including virtues of loyalty, generosity, bravery and ability…the church added another dimension to the warrior element – protecting weak, poor and defending the church (Knights Templars) w/ Crusades
A New Agriculture – Beginnings of Sustainable Growth
- technological innovation in the middle ages was important in sparking material advance and social change…
a) heavy, wheeled plough 1st used by 6th cent. Slavic communities….then seen in 7th cent. in Lombardy, Rhineland (8th cent.), England (in 9th cent.)….this new technology meant more efficient clearing of lands
b) scythe becomes general in use – better than the sickle in cutting and cultivating
c) eventual switch from 2 to 3 field rotation system – more mindful of soil productivity and erosion
d) new crops – rice in Po valley + Sicily, new vegetable production in S. Spain…
e) new irrigation techniques learned from Arabs
- altogether bet’n 6th + 10th cent, historians estimate a 50% growth in agric prod. + beginning of surpluses…of course, the lesson of agriculture to development needs be recalled here!
- underpinning the growth is a shift from Mediterrean to N. Europe as centres of production….and at same time a new spur to town growth is seen in the North and Western parts of Europe….for the most part, towns at the end of antiquity existed mainly in Italy
- hence this “agricultural revolution” is crucial element to the growth in towns + town life after 1100 (espescially in the north)
- moreover, a new period of sustainable growth was ushered in…starting in 12th cent., econ historians see that wealth is starting to grow “faster than population” at the same that the growing population is moving to urban centres (this means that a section of society is starting to emerge in wealth…this is the medieval urban middle class)….population is estimated to be 40 million in Europe (west of Russia) in 1000 A.D, 60 mill in 1200 and 73 mill in 1300…though with the combined effects of the Black Plague and periodic famines, population decreased to 50 mill by 1360 A.D
- the location + rate of increase varied regionally…it was more pronounced in England + France. vs. the Mediterranean +the Balkans….a couple of reasons
a) food supply ↑ by bringing more land under cultivation + through technological innovations
b) settlement of new areas was consciously promoted in the North and West.
* poverty problem persists throughout the Middle Ages as the poorest labourer only eats 2000 calories/day on average
Towns + Trade
- bet’n 1100-1300 urban population is rising faster than similar increases in rural areas…. new town life is based on agricultural advance and the revival of trade….the people are mainly “converted peasants”, mainly, migration from countryside….some new towns grew up around a new castle or monastery as part of conscious settlement
- by 1340 – Paris, Venice, Florence, Genoa = approx 80 000
- 14th cent. Germany = 15 towns of 10 000…in the same cent. London = 35 000
- incidentally, few of the new medieval towns (except in south) were important Roman centres…commercial revival first took place in Italy and it was here that the Italian city power was most visible….
- commercial revival spawned new ways of “being” for townspeople and the elite movement known as the Renaissance
- Venice, Genoa, and Florence emerge in the 11th and 12th cent as self-governing communes, that later expand to become stable and flourishing republics….trade is the basis of their growth…geography too since, the trade was with w/Byzantium + Islamic Mediterrenean
- the relative freedom from feudal controls permitted advantage over N. Europe and meant that the merchant class vs. rural landowning, class were dominant political force…therefore they could in their “oligarchies”, promote the cycle of commercial interests…these republics were the fulcrum of East and West trade and helped promote gradual growth of trade and wealth in Western Europe too
- in terms of int’l trade in the Mediterranean, Venice and Genoa dominated, followed by Ragusa (Croatia), Marseille, Narbonne and Barcelona
- the Mediaval selection of products were largely clothes, food and luxury goods from Persian and India and China (thanks to Marco Polo)…in general the goods came as follows:
- England and Flanders = textiles
- Italy and Egypt = wheat, rye an dgrain products and salt
- Crete and Cyprus = sugar
- Gascony and Guyenne = red and white wine
- Spain and Italy = olive oil
- Sardinia and Parma – Cheese
-N. Europe = copper, iron ore and lumber
- trade grows also in the north parts of Europe…the Hanseatic League is formed in the mid. 14th cent….this league included 50 towns in Northern and Western Europe- they were responsible for moving trade north and south from Norway to Flanders, east and west from Novgorod to London
- the key support to trade is the emergence of Medieval capitalism…the reversion to the money economy changed the manorial system greatly, as feudal dues were beginning to be paid in “cash”….
- an increase in minting and circulation of coins supported the rising money econ. and the Italian “Florin” was the int’l currency of the day…..money changes in the towns were usually Jews and in the funding of loans, Florence was the banking centre of Europe… credit baking to the Monarchs or Europe increase during the 15th and 16th cent. as they finance wars, crusades and the establishment of power over nobles.
- globally speaking the importance of towns:
1) Developpment of New Culture – architecture, arcades, fountains in a way meant new ways of behaviour…urban lifestyles developed around ceremonies, festivals and folk traditions
2) Safety – walls + gates provided security against violence – but also transmission of disease
3) generation of new professions – services were needed like teachers, copyists…artists and universities were centred there.
4) rise of towns meant populations concentrations to support growth in trade and production..but, also to a new impetus to the development of new ideas ( wealth in towns “permitted” the Renaissance – wealthy merchants became “patrons of the arts”)
5) 12th century’s new wealth + new merchant class meant questioning of old hierarchies….as the merchant class interconnected w/growth of towns kings sought support of townsmen against nobles…wanted to use their wealth to their advantage and gave towns charters + special privileges…thus the German proverb “ town air makes man free”
6) new sources of authority besides the church and lord in that of guilds…as independent corporations governing different crafts in any given town guilds were associations of ‘free men’ (i.e. not tied to a lord or the land)…the guilds enshrined rules of common practice, regulated the field of work (i.e. training, apprenticeship, wages) as well as dictated the conditions of sales…..guilds often became very powerful and rich that they could pay for civic amenities like hospitals and their members were important members of the community’s gov’t.
- thus the burgher (bourgeois) was a town dweller who stood up for himself in a ‘universe of dependence’ (ie peasant serfdom + lord-vassal obligation)….before 1000AD there weren’t enough towns for merchants + their markets…nowhere in ancient world (except maybe Ancient Greece) nor in Asia or pre-Columbian America did city life develop the independence, political influence + econ. dynamism as it did in Europe
Social Change, Women and Popular Culture in the
European “Humankind” in the Middle Ages was a matter of:
a) birth – expression of nobility – warriors turned into landowners
b) title – appearance of rank + titles as distinctions – 1st Eng. Duke in 1337.
c) occupation – military, church or estate management was only job for a nobleman
- merchants and commercial life were despised since they dealt with money
d) values – honour, loyalty, disinterested self-sacrifice – ideal of chivalry articulated these ideas + softened the harshness of the military code.
- church provide religious ceremonies to bestow knighthood + ensure the knight’s acknowledgment of his Christian duties
Women – the image of women rested on their fragility and defencelessness…in the chivalric code women were meant to be given special courtesy and respect…a knight served a lady, performed deeds of merit and valour, composed songs and poems and ‘agonized’ over her beauty…notion of ‘courtly love’
- women had rights of inheritance but could not exercise authority of ‘lordship’… therefore, they had to get a man to operate land
- marriages were arranged for the purposes of manipulating property and power – perhaps seen best amongst Europe’s royalty
- woman were also seen as “Origin of Man’s Fall”(Adam and Eve Story from the Bible)… therefore, their souls had to be saved…ironically the Church at the same time offered to women the only respectable alternative to domesticity (i.e. nuns)
‘Popular Culture’
- a social scientist would define ‘popular culture’ as the philosophy, set of values, attitudes of a group of people…popular culture can be expressed in a number of different ways, as it was during Medieval times:
1) Perception of Time
- until later Middle Ages there were no mechanical clocks…time was measured as passing of sun and the seasons…in this case an hourglass, or candle were used to determine passing of time…Medieval world adopted the view that the day was 12 hrs and night 12 hrs…..they changed hours to suit length of day and night
- summer – hours during the days = 90 min
- winter – hours during the night = 90 min
- people in country tuned their conception of time to the passing of the sun as they worked from sun up to sun down…passing of the year was the passing of liturgical seasons and ‘church time’
- towns were characterized by ‘work time’ – physically measure work days…..
- people didn’t keep track of personal age - an heir could inherit property at 18 and there was no sense of retirement…one worked until death
- daylight was considered to be public time…evening was private time spent inside a building
- night was a time of burglars, bad people…many towns prohibited people on the streets after the sun went down.
2) Ideas of Space + Quantity
- no standardized measurements for space, distance, weight, etc…bags might weighs 10 London pounds or 10 Paris pounds…the English used mile + yard - hogsheads of oats = 240 bushels, hogshead of wheat = 140 bushels
- numerical sense was very poorly developed…in 1377, new tax wanted in England, but authorities were not sure how to do it
- some attempts to make maps of geographical regions (i.e. using a basic from Pt. A to Pt. B approach), but proportionality wasn’t there…no sense of overall spatial dimension
3) Nature
- no systematic way to classify plants + animals, however, people lived much closer to animals…animals were still raised in towns and wolves + foxes were common threats in the country….people were much more emerged in nature…people killed their own chickens and did their own preparation work, etc.
- in Middle ages, the dying and the sick remained at home…death was much more a part of routine life
- Medieval “man” still viewed himself separate from nature…the Christian anthropocentric view reigned supreme…other religions thought nature to be on same level of man, however, Christianity espoused that nature was ‘made‘ for humankind, therefore, the position of nature was subordinate…despite this, the capacity to harm nature was limited
- several cities passed laws for the pollution of rivers and build up of garbage.
- environmental concerns arose, only when it interfered with social existence, otherwise, ‘do with nature what you want’
4) The ‘Supernatural’
- an enormous distance was thought to exist bet/n humans + God…therefore, the need for intermediaries as in Saints was crucial…Saints bridged the gap (they were once human but now much closer to God.)
- Church emphasized distinction bet/n priest + congregation…analagous to the ‘divide’ between man + God – the Priest was intermediary who dispensed sacraments
- sacraments were physical means to obtain grace (a closeness with God)…relics of Saints bodies were kept and traded…the sack of Constantinople enabled Saints relics to be sold
- possession of physical remains of Saints were attempts to narrow the gap bet/n God + man.
