As most sepoys came from small towns or villages, the happenings of the rural population was of close interest to them. With the British annexation of land and imposition of land revenue, the sepoys were no doubt affected by it. In the province of Oudh, most families had at least one member in the army. So when the British annexed the land under the Doctrine of Lapse the sepoys were angered as their families were suffering.
A more immediate cause would be the introduction of the new Enfield rifles. The new cartridges had to be bitten off. However, rumour claimed that the cartridges where greased in pig and cow fat- animals sacred to the Hindus and the Muslims. This ignited the already sown read of imposition on religion, which led to many sepoys refusing to use the rifles.
But the revolt was not solely subjected to the sepoys; it turned into a mass civilian uprising. A major cause for the hostilities was the annexation of Indian states. To begin with, the British imposed very high taxes. These were not met by many people, which led them into a cycle of poverty, impoverishment and debt. If the taxes were not paid, methods like threatening and torture were used. Moreover, traditional land aristocracy too suffered. In Oudh, the taluqdars lost all their power when their estates were confiscated. This left them without a source of income as they were unable to work and too ashamed to beg. The revolt was therefore a great way of revenge.
The British rule tried to impose British goods onto the Indian market. To do this they banned all handicrafts. Moreover, the annexation of the land meant that the craftsmen’s main patronage was cut off. This led them to look for other sources of income, which was difficult ‘as the destruction of Indian handicrafts was not accompanied by the development if modern industries.’ Moreover, as said by Dadabhai Naroji and Sumit Sarkar, the British were not helping India modernise but were instead regressing its economy. This angered the intellects who left betrayed.
Orthodox Hindus and Muslims also believed that the British were imposing on their religion and culture. This can be seen with the ban of the Sati practice in 1829. Christian missionaries were allowed to spread their ideas on religion, which the Indians suspected was British funded. Furthermore, provinces like ‘Oudh were such rich and historic parts of India that their seizures were seen as a cultural insult.’
The nobles too suffered from the British rule. They lost all their power and wealth leaving them impoverished and insulted. Moreover, as most people today, the thought of foreign rule was insulting to the locals. They didn’t want to be humiliated by the British whose arrogance was increasing day by day.
Additionally, the relentless exploitation of goods by the British unsettled the tribal men. Taxes were imposed upon them and Christian missionaries were sent in an attempt to ‘civilize’ them. Economic exploitation in the form of moneylenders and middlemen too came about, which further reduced their independence. Land was also restricted in forests, which led to major problems as they relied on shifting cultivation.
Thus, it can be seen that it was not one cause but many factors scattered throughout India that led to the Mutiny Of 1857.
As seen above, there were a variety of factors spread over the years that led up to the mutiny. But there were indications of unrest shown to the British even before the so-called ‘surprise’ mutiny. This is prominent in the theory by Eric Stokes that the revolt was one between the zamindars and the peasants. The zamindars were the tax collectors. They took away the right to own any land and the high taxes made sure that most revenue went to the British. From 1770 to 1857 there were major famines but the taxes continued to be horded in. Though this was not in the hands of the zamindars, the peasant felt otherwise. In the Sanyasi rebellion many displaced peasants, who had been forced to give up land, as they could not pay the taxes, along with soldiers protested which lasted from 1763 to 1800. Major rebellions followed soon in districts of Bihar and Bengal. Even tribal uprising preceded the revolt of 1857, for example, the Kohls of Chhotanagpur. Therefore, to say that a major uprising like the Great Revolt came as a surprise to the British is incorrect as the Indian sentiment was clearly unhappy and demonstrative much before 1857.
The Great Revolt was the largest uprising against the British yet. It led to a completely reformation in the relationship between the British and the Indians. The rise in nationalism along with a feeling of purpose allowed the Indians to open their eyes to the subordination they were subjected to. However, for the British the mutiny was a humiliation and a call to enforce harsher laws.
Perhaps the greatest change after the revolt was the change in governance of India. In 1858, Her Majesty, Queen Elizabeth, took direct control over India from the East India Company. The country was now officially a colony of Great Britain. This further ignited the nationalist attitudes in the Indians who felt even further restricted.
Moreover, the Press Act of 1857 ‘subjected all newspapers to censorship’ [Nalini Taneja] in an attempt to prevent the spread of ideas and opinions. The Arms Act restricted the carrying of weapons in all sections of the Indian society and the Indian element in the army was also drastically reduced. Favouritism was towards the Sikhs and South Indians who were seen as loyal. Not only was there hostility towards the British but hostility among the Indians began to rise too. The regiments were mixed to highlight the stark differences between the communities and raise tensions. Thus, we can see the policy of ‘divide and rule’ already beginning to be implemented. The racism augmented after the revolt where in the judicial system Indians were given no fair rights. The British made allegiances with the feudal landed classes through land settlements. Therefore, the British now tried to integrate into the Indian class system and mark their own superiority.
Additionally, it was only a façade that Indians were now allowed to join the legislative system. This was to convince the nationalists that the British were making amends and that the Indians had a say in the government. However, the examinations to enter the system were under very strict conditions. Candidates had to be 17 years old, had to know proper English and have enough money to pay for their fare to London, where the examinations were held. The British had an unfair advantage and so the legislative was mostly foreign run.
Economically, things had also worsened. The taxation system was revamped and income tax was imposed. The situation of the Indians aggravated and sadly for the British, their relationship with them in addition deteriorated. There was a decline in the court culture as there was a loss of patronage. This meant that courtesans and musicians found their livelihoods destroyed. Unemployment was steeped and the memories of the mughal culture were being erased.
The Revolt of 1857 was a great mark on the history of India where bravery, independence and determination was at show. “…Theirs was a rationality derived both from feudal pre-capitalist ethos and… emerging capitalism under colonialism.” It can be classified as a turning point in the Indian society where a phase of realisation was emerging. As said in the quote, the Great Mutiny was of no surprise to the Indians, however, it was also of no surprise to the British. The hostilities had been simmering over for many preceding years and the revolt was inevitable. Though it turned out to be unsuccessful, it clearly defined a new phase in the British-Indian relationship. The prejudicial actions of the British were irrational and insensitive to the sore Indian sentiments. Not only did they make things worse but they also gave new reason to the Indians to continue their struggle for independence on a grander scale.