The father of experimental psychology (We Didn’t Start the Fire), Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) played a crucial role in the development of the learning perspective, as well the concept of psychology itself. Firstly, he introduced the idea of introspection or the analysis of inner ideas and experiences in order to study psychological phenomenon. Moreover, the idea of running controlled experiments to test hypotheses or research questions was founded primarily by Wundt. Much like Locke, he also supported the concept of empiricism, or the acquisition of knowledge through experience (Carter, 2008). He was also able to distinguish psychology as an individual science, as well as establish the first institute for studying psychology. Finally, he opened the first fully functioning psychology laboratory in 1879 as well (We Didn’t Start the Fire, 2008). These achievements, amongst others are what leave Wundt’s mark on the world of psychology today.
Known best for his theory of evolution, Charles Darwin (1809-1880) is another important and widely studied behaviorist of the nineteenth century. Primarily, he studied the biological or inherent changes observed in a species over hundreds of years (Carter 2008). Not only did he study evolution, but also built up the idea of natural selection, also known as survival of the fittest. He later published a book called ‘The Origin of Species’ which turned out to be the source of a great deal of controversy, as it questioned the Bible’s claim of the creation of man (We Didn’t Start the Fire, 2008). Furthermore, in continuing Wilhelm Wundt’s work in experimental psychology, Darwin pointed out the idea of experimenter bias, where the experimenter may influence the results, by for example revealing his hypothesis to the subject of the test. Finally, he justified the use of animals in experiments with the idea of anthropomorphism. This expresses the attribution of human characteristics to animals or other inanimate objects (Carter, 2008). Overall, Darwin’s ideas and theories remain controversial and crucial topics even in our world today.
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) first introduced the concept of operant or instrumental conditioning. He claimed that animals learn by trial and error, and can be conditioned with the use of positive or negative reinforcers (Carter, 2008). For example, in the case of Thorndike’s famous Puzzle Box, he kept an animal trapped in this cage, with a lever or button which would open the cage and allow the animal to escape. In a particular experiment, he found that animals would use any object in reach in order to accomplish the task (in this case press the lever), such as piling up planks of wood to extend their reach. Soon, the animal learns that pressing the lever lets them escape, which acts as the positive reinforcement. Eventually, this action is learned and therefore the animal has been conditioned to press the lever (Reinemeyer, Erika. 1999). Thorndike also pointed out that the time taken to escape decreased every time the experiment was conducted. Through this testing, he introduced the Law of Effect, which states that if the trial and error leads to success, the action is likely to be reproduced. However, a failure is unlikely to be repeated. Finally, he stated that what is learned most recently will be carried out best, which is know as the Law of Recency (Carter, 2008).
One of the first theorists who supported the idea of classical conditioning was Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Beginning his career in the field of science, he was studying the digestive system in dogs. This then developed into his most famous experiment, where he tested the conditioning of salivation of dogs. Divided into three basic stages, the experiment describes how a dog’s reflex to produce saliva can be conditioned without having to actually produce food. During the first stage, food (the unconditioned stimulus) is brought in front of the dog, producing saliva (the unconditioned response); at this point, no learning has taken place. Next, along with the food, a bell is rung (the conditioned stimulus), again producing the same unconditioned response of salivation; this stage describes the process of learning. Finally, only the bell is rung and the dog still produces saliva, which means the bell is now the conditioned stimulus, and therefore eliciting the saliva makes salivation the conditioned response. At this point, the reflex has been learned. The law of recency also comes into play, because if the bell is repeatedly rung, and there is no reinforcement in the form of food, the conditioned response becomes unlearned. Pavlov’s basic principle was that for learning to take place, there needs to be a stimulus which affects one’s senses (Carter, 2008). He defined the conditioned reflex as “elementary psychological phenomenon” (Nobel Lectures, 1967). Having studied this, Pavlov later continued exploring the physiology of reflexes in animals.
Another behaviorist who worked in the field of classical conditioning was John Watson (1878-1958). His most renowned experiment is known as the Little Albert experiment. Just like Pavlov, he is testing the use of stimuli in order to elicit a desired response. He used a young child, and presented him with a rat and bunny, both of which act as unconditioned stimuli. This makes him happy, which is therefore the unconditioned response. Next, the learning stage pertains making a loud and unpleasant noise (conditioned stimulus) just when the rat is presented. As expected, this made the young boy cry, which is still an unconditioned response. After a certain amount of repetition, Watson is able to make Albert cry just by producing the rat. The rat becomes the conditioned stimulus, and the child crying in turn is the conditioned response. Another observation made by Watson was that presenting any similar object, such as a fur coat, elicited the same response. The main issue surrounding this experiment is the concept of ethics. While back then, this was not considered an unethical or inhumane experiment today he would not be permitted to conduct such a test. Watson disagreed with Wilhelm Wundt, in that, he believed that anything that is not observable is not worth studying, and so he was against the idea of introspection altogether. The same concept goes for the existence of mind, where he argues that conscious thought cannot be studied visually either. Later in his work, he went quite extreme and claimed that the concept of the mind was entirely non-existent as well. Watson also utilized Darwinism in several of his experiments, which represents the continuity between animals and humans. Finally, he combated experimenter bias with the claim that in order for an experiment to be proved valid, it needs to be analyzed by various theorists in order to avoid objectivity of any sort (Carter, 2008). He believed very strongly in his theories of conditioning, which is demonstrated by the famous quote, “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for many thousands of years.” (John B. Watson, Wikipedia 2008)
Finally, the last behaviorist to look at is B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), an operant conditioner. He believed that all complex behaviors can be broken into smaller, simpler ones. This was illustrated through the use of pigeons, as he displayed that he could condition them to roll a black ball to and from each other, with the use of positive or negative reinforcement. Much like Watson, he also believed that internal mental thoughts are not observable and so are not useful to analyze (We Didn’t Start the Fire, 2008). One of his most eminent contraptions is know as the Skinner box, which in several ways resembles that of Thorndike’s puzzle box. In it, he kept an animal trapped, with a lever or button that provided some sort of positive reinforcement. One particular experiment describes a starved rat trapped in this cage, and when it presses the lever, a small pellet of food is dropped into the cage. This acts as positive reinforcement for the rat, and therefore encourages it to repeat this action. Slowly, it becomes learned or conditioned into the rat (Rubin, Julian 2007).
There are various outlooks, theories and conflicts provided by a wide range of behaviorists, which over the course of approximately four hundred hours gave rise to the learning perspective. Conflicts arise between operant and classical conditioning, the existence or validity of studying the existence of mind, nativism versus empiricism, and many more. The experiments conducted in order to prove these theories help us understand how each aspect of behaviorism is justified and how or why it is or isn’t true. Having studied a wide range of behaviorists makes it clear as to how the concept of behaviorism came to be.
Bibliography
"Age of Enlightenment." Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopaedia . 2008. 12 Oct. 2008
Understood the role of John Locke in the age of enlightenment, and how that links in with the birth of the Learning Perspective.
Brausch, Amy, and Alesia Hawkins. "We Didn't Start The Fire." History of Psychology . Northern Illinois University. 10 Oct. 2008
Provides an overview of several psychologists: Rene Descartes, Wilhelm Wundt, Charles Darwin and B.F. Skinner. Some quotes, some general information on experiments, etc.
"Ivan Pavlov - Biography." Nobel Lectures. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing Company, 1967. Rpt. in Les Prix Nobel. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Nobel Prize.org. 1904. The Nobel Foundation. 13 Oct. 2008
Helped understand how he moved from the field of medicine into psychology and detail of his theories as well.
"John B. Watson." Wikipedia. 9 Oct. 2008. 12 Oct. 2008
I used the famous quote about 12 random infants.
Reinemeyer, Erika. Edward Lee Thorndike. May 1999. 13 Oct. 2008
Path: Psychology;Psychology History;Thorndike.
Found detailed information about the theory behind Thorndike's Puzzle Box.
Rubin, Julian. "From Pavlov to Skinner Box." Following The Path of Discovery. Sept. 2007. 12 Oct. 2008
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Explains the concept of Skinner's Box.
