An example of aggression in sport is where David Beckham kicked an Argentinean in the world cup after he received a bad tackle.
An example of assertion in sport would be a forceful tackle in rugby as it is within the rules of the game.
Channelled aggression is aggression that is used to achieve a goal it is not accompanied by anger.
Hostile aggression is behaviour that is intended to harm someone. Moyer termed hostile aggression, reactive aggression which is an emotional response to an individual perceived as an enemy or frustration rival.
Instrumental aggression is aggression that is used to reach a non-aggressive goal. E.g. tackling hard to gain possession of the ball.
Displacement aggression is where aggression is built up from an event but instead of being aggressive then the aggression is let out at a later point. E.g. getting angry at work, building up aggression then becoming aggressive in a football match after work.
Instinct theories of aggression
These theories suggest that aggression is an instinct that has evolved to help us survive.
The psychoanalytical approach
Freud claimed that we have instincts which have to be satisfied. These instincts create an energy drive which is used to satisfaction. Aggression is part of what he called out death instincts, which are destructive. They are in conflict with our life instincts (called eros), which are positive and creative. Freud and Lorenze saw aggression as building up within a person with eros directing it away from self to some other kind of aggressive behaviour.
The ethological approach
Aggression is seen as building up within humans which creates a drive. If it is not released in a constructive way achieving catharsis (using sport to let out aggression) it will lead to some form of impulsive disruptive or aggressive behaviour.
There are some limitations to the instinct theories;
- No inherited aggressive drive has been identified
- it is difficult to measure the cathartic effect of aggression
- cross-cultural studies do not support the view that all humans are naturally aggressive
- cultural influences are seen to be more influential with aggression than biological factors
- human aggression is not always seen as spontaneous
- human aggression is seen as reactive and modifiable
- learning and social influences are not taken into account
- aggression is seen more as a learned response linked to the human ability to reason
The social learning theory
Bandura (1973) behaviour that is learned by observing others. E.g. if a sports performer of a high status is seen behaving aggressively, ‘getting away with it’ and achieving success, then a young player will be more likely to copy these actions. Young players are also told to ‘psych out’ opposition and to make sure that they know they are there.
The frustration-aggression theory
This theory suggests that aggression is both inherited and learned and it is related to frustration. Frustration occurs when we are prevented from achieving our goals. Dollard et al (1939) argued that aggression is an inherited response that only occurs in frustrating situations. Aggression is always caused by frustration and frustration will always cause some sort of aggression. Miller claimed that frustration makes aggression more likely to occur, but it may not be shown.
This is the frustration-aggression model
Limitations on this model are:
- not all frustration leads to aggression in sport
- aggression can be a learned response and does not always happen as a result of frustration
- individual and situational differences are not taken into account
- the cathartic effect of aggression is not upheld
- Frustration leads to a pre-disposition to behave aggressively by increasing anger and arousal. This arousal and anger will only lead to aggression if certain learned cues or environmental stimuli are present. This is the revised model of the frustration-aggression theory
