Psychosexual development involves five stages: The oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital stage. At each stage a different part of body becomes the infant’s erogenous zone where the infant seeks physical pleasure (Coon &Mitterer,2007). At each stage the child confronts conflicts as a result of receiving too much, or too little, gratification. Failure to resolve these conflicts causes fixation where libido gets permanently invested in that stage (Carver &Scheier, 2004). Fixation does not enable normal development because less energy becomes available to deal with conflicts in later stages. The oral stage (OS) involves first eighteen months of life where the infant is completely driven by the id. The first six months the infant is limited to taking in food and the outside world. Oral gratification (e.g., eating, sucking) depends on the mother. However, later in OS with teething the infant’s oral pleasure is linked to biting and chewing. Frustration and conflict arises in OS because food does not always appear when the child is hungry (Ewen, 2003). Throughout OS the ego develops and the infant learns to delay gratification (Macmillian, 1991). Fixation in the first six-months leads to passivity, dependence, pessimism and mistrust. Conversely, fixation during teething causes aggressive characteristics such as cynicism, sarcasm, argumentativeness (Sharf, 2012) ambivalence and narcissism. Although PAT underlines the importance of feeding activity and responsive parenting there is no explanation of when or how often oral stimulation is required.
The anal stage (18 months-3 years) is associated with pleasure that occurs when urinating and defecating. The superego begins to develop at this stage. Frustration and conflict arises during toilet training. That is because, social constraints are for the first time, systematically imposed over satisfaction of internal urges (Carver &Scheier, 2004). Hence, the child needs to delay gratification and learn when and where to express this pleasure in order to gain parents approval. When the toilet training is given by encouragement and reward it results in productivity and creativity in adulthood. Conversely, giving harsh training (e.g., punishment, ridicule) leads to two types of characteristic depending on how the child reacts. If the child rebels and urinates/defecates when the parents least want it, then anal expulsive traits (AET) develop. AET tend to be messy, destructive, cruel and overtly hostile. However, if the child tries to take revenge by withholding faeces/urine then anal retentive traits (ART) develop. ART result in rigid and obsessive characteristics as such cleanliness, orderliness, stinginess and obstinacy (Carver &Scheier, 2004).
At the phallic stage (3-5years) pleasure source comes from the genital organs and most children begin to masturbate. Conflict arises when this autoerotic desire shifts toward the opposite-sex parent and hostility begins toward the same-sex parent. Hence, boys experience Oedipus complex (OC) which is a desire to possess their mothers and replace their fathers. Additionally, the father is seen as a rival for the mother’s affections, therefore jealously and competitiveness may even turn into wish for his father’s nonexistence. Simultaneously, the boy fears his father will castrate him to inhibit his desire toward his mother. That is called castration anxiety which causes boys to repress the desire for the mother and adopt a process called identification (Carver &Scheier, 2004).Identification refers to taking values, attitudes and characteristics of other person, which is a resolution of the Oedipus complex (Wolitzky, 2006). By identifying with his father, the child reduces his ambivalence towards his father and feels protected. Additionally, the child gains a vicarious sense of sexual pleasure by observing the pleasure his father receives from his mother. Moreover, resolving OC through internalizing the father’ values and attitudes, the child fosters the superego and sex-role behaviour. However, unsuccessful resolution of OC causes weak superego formation that can be expressed in impulsive, criminal behaviour, or the development of more feminine sex-role behaviour (Carducci, 2009). Similar to boys, girls experience Electra complex (EC) by realizing that she has no penis. This awareness causes a shift of love from her mother to her father and generates penis envy. That is, she blames her mother for her castrated condition and wishes that her father would share his penis with her through sexual union (Carver &Scheier, 2004). However, desiring to maximize her pleasure via the father versus the mother and having the mother as a rival, creates a danger of losing other source of pleasure (i.e., the mother). Resolving EC through identification with the mother provides her vicarious access to the father, fosters the superego and feminine sex-role behaviour. However, unsuccessful resolution generates phallic personality which characterised with dominant and aggressive behaviour toward men.
After the conflicting and traumatic stages children enter a calm stage termed the latency period (5-12 years) where interaction and identification with same-sex peers become predominant. In this zone, the child’s energy is channelled by socialisation and learning. After the resting period the genital stage (GS) begins (5-12-or older). Although libidinal focus is around the genitals, narcissistic pleasure is replaced by sharing mutual sexual gratification with the opposite- sex in GS. Sexual and aggressive impulses are more controlled and released in socially acceptable ways. Furthermore, in the GS a person becomes capable of loving others in a warm and caring way. However, entering the GS requires resolution of the conflicts left from other periods. Otherwise, lack of control over impulses, difficulty in gratifying sexual desires in acceptable or satisfying ways or inability to form trust for a love relationship can be experienced.
Although validity of PAT is still controversial, results of several studies provide evidence for LOC, defence mechanisms and personality traits. For example, a study by Patton (1992) supported dynamic unconscious by demonstrating fear of abandonment is one variable underlying binge eating episodes in bulimia. Another study by, Rosenwald (1972) showed that some male students assessed as having anal anxiety were also the most obstinate and compulsively neat.
Taken together, Freud’s theory explains the formation of personality as an outcome of a battle between infants’ biological instincts and imposed social constraints by the parents. Although Freud explicitly emphasized the role of strong biological impulses in personality development, it is evident that the power of the social constraints rules over how these needs are met. PAT underlines the quality of parenting especially in activities as such feeding and toilet training as a major determiner of one’s personality. Thus, passing the first two stages successfully allows the child to resolve conflict and mixed feeling toward the parents on its own. Subsequently, good parenting enables child to continue the journey by interacting with same-sex peers and others until the self-centred-pleasure seeking infant transforms into a well-socialized caring adult (Carver &Scheier, 2004). However, despite including social factors by symbolizing parents as representers, PAT does not explain how reference groups, media, interaction with peers and others affect personality. Finally, although Freud’s theory indicates gender difference in the phallic stage, there is no indication how fatherless or motherless children develop personality at that stage. A further study should investigate penis envy and castration anxiety among people who were brought up without father or mothers.
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