Describe the structural compartmentation of mammalian cells and the differing functions of these compartments
Describe the structural compartmentation of mammalian cells and the differing functions of these compartments Introduction Cells with a membrane-bound nucleus are categorised in the eukaryote super kingdom [3]. Mammalian cells are one of four eukaryotic kingdoms, alongside Plantae, Fungi and Protista. Eukaryotes differ from prokaryotes in several ways, including their larger size, multicellular properties, the presence of a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Yet, it seems probable that eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotes, with the most likely explanation being the endosymbiotic theory. When looking under a powerful microscope at the ultrastructure of a mammalian cell we can see that it is compromised of several components. These subunits work together to form effective cell structures, which assemble into a tissue, which in turn construct an organism. Figure 1. The anatomy of an animal cell Source:http://molecular.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/animalcell.html Mammalian cells differ in structure depending on the ways in which they have specialised to carry out particular functions. The typical eukaryotic cell
In relation to human cells
In relation to human cells:- Outline the microscopic structure and function of the main types of cells found in human bone. Bone cells are a very important feature of bones as they built tissue for support as well as actually forming and replacing bone itself. (Gunn, 2007) There are three main different types of bone cell in bone tissue. Osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts. (Thibodeau, 2007). All three of these cells differentiate in structure. Osteoblasts have a reticulum which is not very well developed. They have loose inorganic ctystals which clearing show bone destruction. Their structure like so, is organised for the synthesis of protein to form a bone matrix. (Cameron, Paschall and Robinson, 1967). They occur along a surface and usually lie adjacent to each other upon lamellae which they secrete. They are known as bone-forming cells and are small cuboidal cells in shape. (King., 2009). Osteocytes are small cells. They are secreted from osteoblasts are isolated from one another in individual lacunae. The cell has tiny canaliculi which extend out to undertake the cell processes. They are divided by gaps but are close enough for means of communication and nutrient supply with one another. (King, 2009). Osteoclasts can be known as the bone-removing cell. They are a large cell and have multiple nuclei. They occur in small hollows which erode into the surface.
Cellular Respiration
Jennifer Forrester Biology 101- Section 700 March 2, 2009 Lab Report 3 Cellular Respiration Introduction In order for cells in the human body to function, they need energy. Adenosine tri-phosphate is the molecule that provides energy to the cell. It is constantly created and available to be spent whenever and wherever energy is needed. In this prodcess, cells break down glucose and other organic molecules for the synthesis of this molecule. Glucose contains energy stored within its chemical bonds. Energy released as glucose is slowly broken down and can be captured to produce ATP. ATP is created through a process of cellular respiration. (SYMBIOSIS p75) There are three main stages of cellular respiration. The process begins with glycolysis. Glycolysis literally means "splitting sugars". Glucose is split into two molecules of a three carbon sugar. In the process, two molecules of ATP, two molecules of pyruvic acid and two "high energy" electron carrying molecules of NADH are produced. This process can occur whether or not oxygen is present. (Bailey) The next stage is called the citric acid cycle. This process begins after the two molecules of the three carbon sugar are converted to a slightly different compound. Several compounds capable of storing "high energy" electrons are produced along with two ATP molecules. NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
Biology Notes
In the poem "Dulce Et Decorum Est", Wilfred Owen challenges the idealized notions of those at home and shows the true devastating reality of war by recounting graphically the death of a soldier after a gas attack. Owen uses visual representations in Dulce to show the mental and physical effects on the soldiers going through the punishment of war and how this changes the young soldiers. The harshness of the simile "bent double like old beggars" illustrates how the soldiers look, showing them as crestfallen and disheartened, "bent". This is not how soldiers are normally depicted they should have their heads held high and marching tall. Owen shows how the young men of war have now become old beggars; they have aged and are begging for their lives; lives that may be taken away from them at any time. This along with "an ecstasy of fumbling" shows the urgent need for the salvation of one's life. The ecstasy of fumbling to put on their gas masks shows the audience how the soldiers have been forced into the bent and begging state to save their lives. The soldiers are beyond exhaustion, they have to find the energy to put on their gas mask or they will face death. The innocence of youth has been lost. Some have lost their lives; others have lost their mental state. The title is ironic and translated means, "It is a sweet and noble deed to die for one's country", but to Owen there is
Comparing and and contrasting the endocrine system with the nervous system in their control of homeostasis.
________________ Homeostasis ________________ ________________ Comparing and and contrasting the endocrine system with the nervous system in their control of homeostasis. Introduction Homeostasis is a process of regulating and constant internal environment in respond to external factors and takes place through biological processes (Thibodeau & Patton 2008). These processes naturalize changes that affect metabolic equilibrium. For life system parameters to be regulated and monitored for its current status it is important for the body to have sensor mechanism (Thibodeau & Patton 2008). The status can be checked against the “set ideal point” and response then would be initiated to restore to normal condition- balance (Thibodeau & Patton 2008). The most important properties, which are regulated, are: temperature, blood pressure, plasma osmolality, oxygen levels and metabolite levels (Bradley & Calvert 2011). Balanced internal environment allows cells to function appropriately. In a situation where plasma potassium level wouldn’t be controlled to set limits, this would affect membranes in excitable tissues which in result lead to hart failure or even death (Bradley & Calvert 2011). Homeostatic processes are based on a feedback loop, which allows to constantly monitoring level of substances or parameters (Bradley & Calvert 2011). Any change of the levels away from
Kidneys and nephrons functions
________________ ________________ ________________ Kidneys and nephrons functions ________________ ________________ Introduction Kidneys are located on the posterior wall of the abdomen and protected by lower ribs. They are supplied by blood, which is transported from aorta through renal arteries, and filtered blood will be transported back through renal veins (Bradley & Calvert 2011). A kidney consists of outer cortex, inner medulla and renal pelvis, where urine is hold and passed to ureter and then to the bladder (Bradley & Calvert 2011). Osmoregulation is controlled by kidneys (electrolytes and fluid levels in the body). Kidneys are also responsible for excretion of urea (nitrogenous waste) (Bradley & Calvert 2011). Electrolytes and body fluid levels are very important for functioning cells and tissues. Even slight changes in plasma potassium can cause heart failure and paralysis and kidneys regulate this (Bradley & Calvert 2011). The fluids and electrolytes from plasma are going through filtration and then appropriate level will be reabsorbed into blood to keep sufficient plasma level. The process of reabsorption is achieved by hormonal control (Bradley & Calvert 2011). Kidneys are also responsible for the removal of the waste nitrogen, which is the product of proteins breakdowns (Bradley & Calvert 2011). Any dysfunctions of kidneys can be fatal as homeostatic
Impacts of Climate Change on Loggerhead Turtles
The Impact of Climate Change on Loggerhead Sea Turtles on the Atlantic Coast of Florida Lauren DeGeorge, Kristin Spiess, Chelsea Linman, Jake Fitzgerald, Kate Forsmark , & El Lorenz \ Introduction Loggerhead sea turtles are an iconic beach reptile. In the face of climate change there is a possibility that this species could be lost without proper mitigation techniques. Loggerheads rely on temperature of both water and air and the availability of beaches in order to properly reproduce, nest, provide nutrients to costal ecosystems, and continue life in the ocean functioning as an important species in sea grass, coral reef, and beach ecosystems (Hawkes, L. A., Broderick, A. C., Godfrey, M. H., & Godley, J., 2007, Wilson, E. G., Miller, K. L., Allison, D., & Magliocca, M., 2003). Climate change threatens Loggerhead sea turtles reproduction processes because of changes in sea temperature, increased storm activity and sea level rise. This can be prevented, however; with proper mitigation measures which include educating the public, continued practice of current conservation methods and increasing the amount of protected shorelines. The purpose of this study is to provide an overview and analysis of the current literature and to present an estimate of the future populations Loggerhead sea turtles in a changing climate without mitigation. We will also provide a suggestion of the
DNA research paper. The Ligation of EGFP cDNA into pET41a(+)
Shanni He Biol 100K Prof. Jeremy Lee TA: Kasturi Malaviya The Ligation of EGFP cDNA into pET41a(+) I. Introduction Over the course of the last few weeks, we conducted experiments in which our goal was to successfully ligate EGFP cDNA into pET41a(+) in order to transform our recombinant expression plasmids into clones of E. coli. After growing these cultures on varieties of agar plates, we attempted to isolate our recombinant plasmid DNA and ran multiple tests in order to confirm that the EGFP insert worked. GFP was first cloned in 1994 from the jellyfish Aqueorea victoria (Prasher et al., 1992). This useful gene glows green under specific lights allowing us to see when and where proteins appear. The type of GFP we used in our lab was EGFP, which is a humanized version of GFP (Yang et al., 1996). Today, GFP has become one of the most widely used proteins in biochemistry and has sparked man `` y new discoveries in gene expression and protein targeting. In order to clone EGFP, we utilized multiple procedures of recombinant DNA technology. This technology allows scientist to produce DNA artificially by extracting DNA from two different sources and combining them into a single molecule. The first successful production was done in 1972 at Stanford University, which opened a new horizon in drug development and medical discoveries. Human insulin, which is used to help
Broccoli is often termed as a miracle food as its' health benefits are seemingly endless( Mitchell et al. 114). The healthy balance of soluble and insoluble fiber in broccoli enhances the gastrointestinal tract
Ishtiaq Mohammad Ishtiaq English M01 3 p.m. The Finest Vegetable Vegetables are an essential component to contributing to a person's health in a positive manner. Vegetables increase the chances for a person to live more healthy, active, and less prone to certain diseases and cancers(Murray et al. 133). They act as anti-oxidants and prevent dangerous substances in a person's body from spreading. One of the best and most incredible vegetables, hailed as the "Crown Jewel of Nutrition"( Mitchell et al. 113), is Broccoli. Broccoli is one of the superlative vegetables a person can consume and it is essential for a healthy and happy lifestyle. What is broccoli? Broccoli is a name derived from the Latin word branchium meaning "branch," is a cruciferous vegetable that belongs to the cabbage family and is considered to be a close relative to cauliflower. It originated, as written in as written in The Encyclopedia of Healing Food, from a wild cabbage native to Europe and has been known in Europe for 2,000 years(Murray et al. 154). Broccoli was later introduced to the United States during colonial times but did not become popular until the 1920s(155). In the book The Complete Book of Nutritional Healing, it is said that today, ninety percent of the broccoli consumed in the United States is grown in California(Mitchell et al. 112). Broccoli is
Stem Cells: Self-Renewal, Differentiation, and Heterogeneity
Project Update #1 Stem Cells: Self-Renewal, Differentiation, and Heterogeneity Joe Buran, Nick Rotella, Karamveer Birthare Introduction- Stem cells are biological cells found in all multi-cellular organisms, and have the potential to develop into several different types of cells in the body during their early life and throughout growth. They also play a major role in the regeneration of many tissues, as they continue to divide almost without limit as long as the organism is still alive. After a stem cell divides, it can either remain a stem cell or continue to grow, or it can differentiate into a more specific cell with a specialized function. Heterogeneity of Stem Cells- The classical definition of a stem cell requires that it possesses two properties, or metastable cell states. The first property, self-renewal, means that they have the ability to go through numerous cycles of cell division while maintaining the undifferentiated state. Secondly, they must possess potency. This is the ability under certain physiological conditions to become, or differentiate, into tissue or organ-specific cells with defined tissues. However, in other areas and tissues of the body, stem cells may only divide under special biological conditions. The ability of a stem cell to maintain both metastable cell states is referred to as stem cell heterogeneity. Various groups of scientists have
