Research indicates that "growth and development are influenced not only by past events but by ongoing experiences and future expectations"(Clarke, A. 1976, p.76).
Because of Michael's birth parents lack of parenting skills, he may not have had adequate food, affection and stimulation in the first few years of his life; this could have delayed Michael's development. For example he may have been kept in the cot or pram for most of the day. Such a child will show general retardation in locomotion, manipulation and exploring, as well as in speech and general liveliness (Flanagan 1994, p.199). Michael may improve rapidly in growth and liveliness when given adequate food, stimulation and affection given by his foster carers, but a number of behaviour problems may probably persist for many months. Deprived children usually desperately seek attention and affection, as if to avoid losing these things again (Flanagan, 1994 p.199).
Attachment is an “affectionate bond between two individuals that endures through space and time and serves to join them emotionally,” (Kennell, 1976).
Whenever a social worker intervenes in the life of a family, which includes a child, there is a story behind the intervention. The social worker needs to know that story and its effect on each child, and to "live through the experience with the child as fully as possible, without denying the pain, and accepting the sadness, anger and depression the situation gives rise to" (Winnicott, 1956 p.17).
Therefore, when Michael entered foster care, he would have had to cope with two things (amongst others):
- Loss and separation anxieties
- Forming attachments with his carers
Researchers (Robertson and Bowlby, 1971) have identified three stages in a child’s reaction to separation: protest, withdrawal and detachment. It is the worker’s job, to help the child cope with this trauma. “Distress caused by separation, is likely to be greater if the child is between 6-7 months and 3 years old, reaching a peak between 12-18 months” (Maccoby, 1980, p.658). One of the crucial variables linked with age, is the ability to hold in the mind an image of the absent mother.
Also the limits to a child’s language comprehension may make it difficult to explain concepts of tomorrow or in a few days time. The child may feel that the mother has abandoned them and that she no longer loves them or that they are to blame. “The combination of separation from the key attachment figure and a lack of personalised care giving during the separation produce the greatest upset,” (Rutter and Rutter, 1993, p.57). The more stable and less tense the relationship before separation, the better the child appears to cope i.e. there’s less chance that the child will blame themselves for the separation.
Alternatively, an extremely close and protective relationship where the child is rarely out of the mother’s sight will produce a more traumatic separation, as it is a new experience. “Multiple attachments also make separation less stressful as the child is not dependent on one,” (Kotelchuck, 1976). However, any behavioural problems that existed prior to the separation are likely to be heightened. This is because the young child’s personality and emerging sense of self, form within relationships and any disruption to that relationship, is a threat to the integrity of the self. “When that bond is broken the very structure of the personality is endangered” (Fraiberg, 1977, cited in Fahlberg 1991, p.143). Social Workers should note, that they are dealing with a young personality, that is "still in the process of forming within the now disrupted attachment relationship" (Howe, 1995, p.57). These experiences of loss and disruption can be present throughout the life cycle (Parkes, 1986), and research shows that past experiences of loss along with the quality of current relationships can have a significant impact on how well we grieve and eventually adjust to our loss (Howe, 1992).
When moving to a new placement the child is faced with forming new attachments to their carers. Bowlby (1969) argued that the child displays social behaviour from birth (crying, smiling etc.), up to and beyond the time that he makes focused attachment to parental figures. Parental response to these innate behaviours, combined with a critical period early in a child’s life, cause attachments. Bowlby (1969), also claimed that an infant displays a strong innate tendency to be “attached” to one particular individual (this need not be the natural mother) and this form of attachment is different to any subsequent kind (Bowlby’s Monotropy Theory).
Studies by Schaffer and Emerson (1964) support the idea that a child’s attachments are not equal and that a hierarchy exists. Bowlby also argued that, a child’s relationship with its mother, is somehow altogether different from others. He claimed, that the maternal bond could not be broken in the first years of life, without causing serious and permanent damage to emotional, intellectual and social development (Bowlby, 1951). He called this breaking of the mother-child bond, “Maternal Separation.” Bowlby argued that, the separation anxiety experienced by children, had to do with their emotional rather than physical experiences.
Rutter, (1972), later made the important point that, the effects of bond disruption (maternal separation), and failure to form bonds (maternal deprivation), are different. If maternal bonding theory were correct, it would not be possible for foster parents to form necessary attachments to “their” children, whom they would not have seen as babies at all (in the majority of cases). It is the process of bonding that forms the basis for attachment in later life. I feel that the use of a single concept is wholly inadequate, as there are many modifying influences (supported by empirical research) which determine the consequences for the child. These include:
- Sex (Stacey et al., 1970).
- Age (Schaffer and Callender, 1959).
- Temperament (Stacey et al., 1970).
- Previous separation experiences (Vernon et al., 1965).
- Previous mother/child relationship (Vernon et al., 1965).
- Duration of separation experience (Heinicke and Westheimer, 1965).
- Separation experienced within a strange environment (Douglas and Blomfied, 1958).
The purpose of the placement, the needs of the child and the capacity of the carers, will all affect the quality of the attachment. Given the lifelong effect that lack of attachment can have on a child, and children require continuing relationships for ongoing growth and development, it is primary that the foster care system responds in a way that facilitates attachment. Unresolved separations interfere with the formation of new attachments, as few children in foster care receive adequate help in resolving the grief they experienced when separated from their birth family (Fahlberg, 1991, p.17).
In working with children, effective and appropriate communication is essential; otherwise very little positive can be achieved, misunderstanding will occur, and harm may be done. In the scenario it was our purpose as a group to show how we would communicate with Michael. Firstly, as the worker, I feel it is important to talk to Michael's foster carer regarding Michael's ability to communicate with them and with other people, and how they communicate with Michael. If I could not find another way of obtaining this information informally, it may be necessary to arrange to discuss the issue with a worker at his local nursery or play group.
It is also important to establish both the child's chronological and developmental stage. Because Michael is only 3 years of age we decided to communicate through play (see Fahlberg, 1988, Direct Work Play Therapy) as a therapeutic way forward. Direct work combines the child’s natural medium of expression (play), and is therefore a useful tool in planning for each individual child.
Three year olds have short attention spans, become easily distracted and often turn to fidgeting or running around. The worker must go with the flow; hopefully the child will come back to the point of play. It is also very important for the worker to communicate at the child's level i.e. if the child is sitting on the floor it is also important for the worker to sit on the floor with the child, listen and show interest. What the child has to say is important and is not necessarily irrelevant. Use any stories the child talks about as an aid to your communication (Fahlberg, 1991, p.339).
During communicative periods it is important to comprehend the child, but not to interrupt if a word doesn't make sense to you. It may be possible to understand the overall meaning, or the worker could at a later stage check with someone who understands the child's language, without putting the child under pressure. Michael may be clear about friendship and about people he can trust. But he may be wary of people he doesn't know, and may be reluctant to communicate with them. With those Michael knows and can trust, he may be confiding and affectionate. A child of 3 yrs. may say 'I don't like you,' simply because they don't know you. It is important for the worker to take time and perhaps have numerous meetings, in order to build trust and work beyond first impressions.
In the scenario, there is no mention of Michael's ethnicity, cultural background, any speech or cognitive problems, disability or other issues that the worker may need to consider when working with him. For good and effective practice, the skills and knowledge relating to these factors would need to be fully considered before/during communicating with Michael (if applicable).
One way of facilitating this process would be through the worker's knowledge of existing resources and networks (outlined earlier). A good knowledge of these differing agencies' structure, culture and process mechanisms (see O'Sullivan, 1999, pp.34-42) can also enable good anti-oppressive practices. Facilitating this linking of people and resources requires a skilled approach based on a clear set of values (BASW, 1994). This co-operation and inter agency work is also a duty under s27 (1) & (2) of the Children Act 1989. It enables children to link in with resources and networks specific to their needs and promotes their "voices".
One way of achieving this is for the worker to work within the context and Principles of The United Nations Declaration of the Rights of the Child. This document rightly advocates that the child should have a happy childhood and enjoy for his/her own good and for the good of society certain rights and freedoms. It also calls upon parents, men and women as individuals, upon voluntary organisations, local authorities and national Governments to recognise these rights and strive for their observance by legislative and other measures progressively taken in accordance with the Principles set out in the afore mentioned document.
All work undertaken by the worker should be fundamentally premised by this ethos and the fact that Michael is only 3 years old should have no bearing upon the workers commitment to good and effective anti-oppressive and empowering practices. It is also a pre-requisite to fully understand ones' duties/role and to ensure that the rights of the child are not undermined because of any difficulties one may experience.
Children need to be placed with foster carers that possess the skills and ability, to achieve healthy attachments so that growth and development are facilitated and then transferred to the primary care givers.
Attachment theory has helped workers understand how and why children develop close bonds with their caregivers. It has also provided a framework that enables workers to understand the importance of psychological development through attachment and the implications for the child if they don’t.
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