There are a number of main gestures associated with nonverbal communication. Firstly, gaze and eye contact are very important with relation to nonverbal communication. Many argue that our eyes are the gateway to the soul and a lot of information can be gathered through eye contact and gaze. Argyle and Ingham (1972) cited in Hogg and Vaughan (2002) state that people in social encounters spend sixty-one percent of their gazing at others, and that a gaze can last up to three seconds. They also state that in these social encounters, people spend thirty-one percent of their time engaged in eye contact. A person’s eye contact has the ability to convey a wide variety of different things. It can give information on individual’s feelings, their status, their honesty and their attentiveness, to name a few examples. Evidence suggests that people are more likely to make eye contact with those they like as opposed to those they dislike (Hogg and Vaughan 2002).
A very important aspect of nonverbal communication is facial expression. Darwin (1872) cited in Hogg and Vaughan (2002) believed that some emotions are universal and that with these universal emotions there are universal facial expressions. Further research has found six basic emotions that are universal. These are happiness, surprise, sadness, fear, disgust and anger. These emotions are thought to be the basic components from which more complex emotions derive. These basic emotions are usually associated with one particular facial expression. For example happiness is usually associated with smiling. (Hogg and Vaughan 2002).
The third and final form of nonverbal communication to be discussed is body movement or as it is often called body language. Body language is used in all types of social interaction. These bodily movements are used, often subconsciously, to reinforce what has or has not been said. Many researchers, such as Birdwhistell (1970) and Kendon (1983), believe that there are over sixty basic body movements, which can be used in a variety of different combinations to provide information. For example, if a person uses the combination of a shoulder shrug, with raised eyebrows and upturned palms, the person is communication that they do not know the answer to a question that has been asked of them. (Argyle 1988).
Displays of nonverbal communication, as mentioned earlier, serve a variety of functions. However, the two fundamental functions are that of expressing emotion and the transfer of meaning. From the time we are born the first thing we need to communicate is what we want and what we feel. There is a lot of evidence to suggest that we are equipped with the nonverbal tools for this from birth. For example a baby is able to express their feelings through crying and smiling. Darwin (1872) cited in Durkin (1995) argued that we are born with this innate ability because the ability has evolved because of its adaptive value. He states that many specific facial expressions show similarities to facial expressions that were used in the past by our ancestors for survival purposes. (Durkin 1995).
If Darwin’s theory is correct in its assertion that nonverbal communication is innate, then nonverbal communication should be evident, and universal, in all cultures and that it develops during very early infancy. There is considerable evidence to suggest that this is exactly what occurs. Cultural studies show that there are a number of emotions and expressions that are universally understood. Studies on normal infants have shown that from very early on in their development they are able to produce a number of recognisable emotions. Izard (1994) cited in Durkin (1995) has devised a theory which he calls ‘the differential emotions theory’. The theory sees emotions as an organised system in which innate facial expressions are associated with a specific emotion. Izard argued that these relationships, like other innate behaviours, can be seen early on in life. Izard devised his theory from a study he carried out in 1980. Izard and his colleagues videotaped one to nine month old babies in a variety of situations, which varied from pleasant interactions with their mothers to more distressing situations such as inoculations and blood tests. Adult raters, that were not shown the situations, were able to determine, from the tapes, the emotion associated with the facial expression with some accuracy. From this evidence Izard argued that these expressions were innate phenomena. (Durkin 1995).
Other psychologists also believe that facial expressions are innate. Fridlund, Ekman and Oster (1987) state that
“Contrary to previous belief, neonatal smiles are neither random nor produced by flatulence. They occur primarily during REM sleep and seem to reflect periodic, endogenous fluctuations in CNS activity”. (pg 162).
They argue that the ability to smile is not learnt but is developed innately in an individual. (Fridlund, Ekman and Oster 1987).
Although there is evidence to suggest that facial expressions are innate, others argue that like other behaviours, nonverbal communication is learnt. Many psychologists argue that many nonverbal gestures do not develop at the same time in everyone. They believe that this is because the behaviour is learnt through interaction with the caregiver. For example, an infant’s transaction from reaching gestures to pointing could reflect the fact that as the infant realises the effect of their reaching gestures, the adult uses pointing for the same purpose. Eventually the child will learn to associate pointing to a meaning that they have already formulated by using the reaching gestures. Acredolo and Goodwyn (1988) cited in Durkin (1995) investigated the development and use of symbolic gestures in infants. In a longitudinal study, carried out on a set of infants between the ages of eleven to twenty months, they found that in fifty percent of instances the gestures used mirrored an action specific to a familiar interaction between the parent and the child. This suggests that certain nonverbal behaviour is a direct contribution of parental behaviour. (Durkin 1995).
Other researchers, such as Malatesta et al (1989), have also found evidence to suggest that nonverbal behaviours are learnt. Malatesta et al cited in Durkin (1995) found that the development of positive emotions was related to the behaviour of the mother. They argue that as a mother watches their babies’ behaviour they react to the infants expressions with their own facial responses. They also found that the type of attachment a child has with their parents also has an effect on the development of nonverbal behaviour. For example, insecurely attached infants showed a more inhibited anger expression, whereas securely attached infants looked for their mothers more frequently. (Durkin 1995).
In conclusion, it is evident that nonverbal communication is an important aspect of development. Facial expressions and body movements are important in the communication of meanings and emotions. Many argue that nonverbal communication is an innate phenomenon that develops into more complex actions as we age. However others argue that this is not the case and that we learn to use nonverbal communication as we interact with others. It is difficult to ascertain which of these two views are more plausible. While there is a lot of evidence, from experience and research, to suggest that our nonverbal communicative abilities are innate, the fact that we do seem to learn some behaviours cannot be discounted. It is more plausible that while we are born with the basic nonverbal expressions, the more complex expressions are learnt through social interaction.
