There are numerous attributional theories that have emerged from this work, including Wiener’s theory (1992) and Abramson and Martin’s theory of depression (1981). Another such theory (influenced heavily by the work of Schachter) is the cognitive appraisal theory (Lazerus, 1982), which suggests that there is some minimal cognitive appraisal of a situation or stimuli which always comes before the emotional experience, be it consciously or automatically occurring.
Now that the basis of emotional theory is acknowledged the links between emotion and stress should be illustrated, and the manner by which this can lead to harmful effects. Cox (1978) asserted that emotions such as shame, anxiety, guilt, grief, jealousy, fear and anger, which Lazerus (1976) termed the ‘stress emotions’, are all emotions that are associated with the experience of stress. Pain is also an important factor within these studies as whilst it is not an emotion it shares an association with emotions such as depression and anxiety, it follows the components of subjective experience, emotional response and cognitive appraisal and is often treated with the same methodology which is employed to help people suffering from stress. Pain is also often related to psychophysiological (i.e. stress-related) disorders and contingency management, biofeedback and self-management/cognitive behaviour treatment are all behavioural treatments used to treat pain and stress (Gross, 1996). Although pain is essentially a biological occurrence, it also has social, cultural and psychological significance, the latter including explanations and attributions of pain, such as whether it is controllable or not, and this significance carries over into the phenomenon of stress.
Stress can be defined as one of three categorisations; as a stimulus, a response or as an interaction between an organism and its environment (Goetsch & Fuller, 1995). Goetsch & Fuller’s classification also corresponds very closely to the stress models identified by Cox (1978). According to Lazurus (1966), stress cannot be defined objectively. What counts as a potential cause of stress or ‘stressor’ depends on the individual’s perception of an excessive demand being made on his or her capacities. Other stressors could include frustrations and conflicts. The three main kinds of conflict are approach-avoidance, avoidance-avoidance, approach-approach (Coon, 1983). Extreme physical demands can also be causes of stress. The disruption of circadian rhythms, or the ‘biological clock’, which involves the internal desynchronisation of the body’s functions, can be very stressful. This can occur when shift workers change their shift pattern and when people cross time zones (causing jet lag). These negative effects are increased when the biological clock is brought forward (a phase advance), as when shifts start earlier or when time zones are crossed in a West-East direction (Pinel, 1993).
These changes in human lives are often most stressful when they are uncontrollable. Holmes and Rahe’s Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) (1967) is a self-administered way of measuring stress, which it does in terms of life change units. The scale was intended to predict the onset of illness on the premise of the greater the amount of life change, the greater the likelihood of future illness. Studies which claim to have found support for this prediction are correlational and retrospective and the SRRS assumes that all change is inherently stressful. The distinction should be made here as to the change that is predictable or controllable and that which is not. Some people are more susceptible to stress and therefore place themselves more prone to the harmful effects of such. People rated high on external locus of control (Rotter, 1966) are more vulnerable to the harmful effects of change and learned helplessness (Seligman, 1975) is seen as a major feature of clinical depression. The Assessment of Daily Experience (Stone, et al., 1987) is another alternative to the SRRS and has been used in prospective studies to predict the onset of respiratory illness whilst the hassles scale (Kanner, 1981) is designed to measure everyday stressors, which seems to be a better predictor of ill health than the life events of the SRRS, probably due to the prolonged residual effect that even the smallest, seemingly trivial, events or occurrences can maintain. Many occupations, including the health care professions, seem to be inherently stressful according to these scales, as in the case of nurses having to deal continuously with illness, death, distress and suffering whilst surviving disaster or turmoil of various kinds, such as the attacks on the twin towers of 9/11 or the Gulf war, can result in ill health in the form of post-traumatic stress disorder.
In order to determine what the effects of stress were, Seyle (1956) devised the General Adaptation syndrome (GAS) which refers to the body’s response to any stressor. It comprises the alarm reaction, resistance and exhaustion. Seyle defined stress as:
‘...the individual’s psychophysiological response, mediated largely by the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system, to any demands made on the individual’ (Seyle, 1956).
Two main bodily systems are involved in Seyle’s description of the stress process: the sympathetic branch of the ANS which stimulates the adrenal medulla to produce adrenaline and noradrenaline (the catecholamenes), and the anterior pituitary-adrenal cortex system, which involves the release of corticosteroids (Seyle 1956).
While most stressors do not present us with physical danger in contemporary society, our nervous and endocrine systems have evolved in such a way that we typically react to stressors as if they did, since society has evolved much quicker than our physical bodies can adapt. These once-adaptive responses are maladaptive in current society and resultantly there are a number of ways in which stress can result in physical illness, including its influence on the immune system. Studies have found stressful situations to be associated with decreased lymphocyte activity, decreased levels of antibodies found within immunoglobulin and increased incidence of infection and immunological abnormalities due to increased output of endorphins/enkephalins. Personality, gender and ethnic background all act as modifiers/mediators of the response to stress. Perhaps the most researched is the Type A personality (Rosenman et al, 1975), who is especially vulnerable to high blood pressure and coronary heart disease resulting from stress whilst Type C personality (Temoshok, 1987) has difficulty expressing emotion and is thought to be more cancer prone than other personality types. Day to day occurrences as they relate to a person’s social situation or the manner in which society operates have a great effect on the stress a subject is exposed to. The greater incidence of high blood pressure among African Americans has been attributed to the direct and indirect effects of racism, one facer of which is accumulative stress (Anderson, 1991).
Women seem to be relatively unresponsive to stress-producing situations, which may help explain their longer average life expectancy. Women are also less likely than men to be Type A personalities, although the gap in death rates between men and women is closing, due perhaps to an alteration of lifestyle choices. An example could be the increase in drinking and smoking among females in more recent history (Davidson and Neale, 1994).
The effects of stress as they relate to physical illness are compelling. Whilst basic physiological responses to a stressor may be common across humans, different factors can mediate the effects of a perceived source of stress. There are important issues raised by these correlations in terms of what coping methods are in place to accommodate such perceived threats. The term ‘coping mechanism’ is sometimes contrasted with ‘defence mechanism’, referring to conscious or constructive and unconscious or distorting solutions respectively. Secondary appraisal involves a search for coping responses that will reduce or remove the stressor (Lazerus, 1966). Five categories of coping response were highlighted; information seeking, inhibition of action, intrapsychic/palliative coping and turning to others (Cohen & Lazerus, 1979). This notion also overlaps with problem-focused and emotion-focused coping (Lazerus & Folkman, 1984). Concepts of stress management are crucial in slowing the tide of stress related illness which increases in contemporary society and can refer to a range of psychological techniques used deliberately to help reduce stress, including biofeedback, progressive muscle relaxation, meditation, hypnosis and cognitive restructuring.
Bibliography
Abramson, L.Y. & Martin, D.J. (1981) Depression and the causal inference process. In J.H. Harvey, J. Ickes & R.F. Kidd (Eds.), New directions in attitude research, Vol. 3. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
Anderson, L.P. (1991) Acculturative stress: A theory of relevance to black Americans. Clinical Psychology Review, 11, 685-702.
Averill, J.R. (1994) In the eyes of the beholder. In P. Ekman & R.J. Davidson (Eds) The Nature of emotion: Fundamental questions. New York: Oxford University Press.
Cannon. W.B. (1929) Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear and rage. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Coon, D. (1983) Introduction to psychology (3rd ed.). St Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing Co.
Cox, T (1978) Stress London: Macmillan Education
Davidson, G.C. & Neale, J.M. (1994) Abnormal psychology (6th ed.) New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Ekman, P. & Friesen, W.V. (1975) Unmasking the face. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Ekman, P. (1994) All emotions are basic. In P. Ekman & R.J. Davidson (Eds) The Nature of emotion: Fundamental questions. New York: Oxford University Press.
Goetsch, V.L. & Fuller, M.G. (1995) Stress and stress management. In D. Wedding (Ed.) Behaviour and medicine (2nd ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby-Year Book.
Gross, R.D. (1996) Psychology : the science of mind and behaviour. Frome & London. Hodder & Stoughton.
Hohmann, G.W. (1966) Some effects of spinal cord lesions on experienced emotional feelings. Psychophysiology, 3, 143-56.
Holmes, T.H. & Rahe, R.H. (1967) The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psycho-somatic Research, 11, 213-18.
Lazerus , A.A. (1976) Multimodal behaviour therapy. New York: Springer.
Lazerus, R.S. & Folkman, S. (1984) Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Lazerus, R.S. (1966) Psychological stress and the coping process. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lazerus, R.S. (1982) Thoughts on the relations between emotion and cognition. American Psychologist, 37, 1019-24.
Levenson, R.W., Ekman, P., Heider, K. & Friesen, W.V. (1990) Voluntary facial action generates emotion-specific autonomic nervous system activity. Psychophysiology, 27, 363-84.
Maranon, G. (1924) Contribution a l’etude de l’action emotive de l’adrenaline. Revue Francaise Endocrinol., 2, 301-25.
Pinel, J.P.J. (1993) Biopsychology (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Rosenman, R.H., Brand, R.J., Jenkins, C.D., Friedman, M., Strauss, R. & Wurm, M. (1975) Coronary heart disease in the Western Collaborative Group Study. Journal of the American Medical Association, 233, 872-7.
Rotter, J.B. (1966) Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 30 (10), 1-26.
Schachter, S. & Singer, J.E. (1962) Cognitive, social and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychological review, 69, 379-99.
Schachter, S. (1964) The interaction of cognitive and physiological determinants of emotional state. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.) Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol.1. New York: Academic Press.
Schlosberg, H.S. (1941) A scale for the judgement of facial expression. Journal of experimental psychology, 29, 497-510.
Seligman, M.E.P. (1975) Helplessness: On depression, development and death. San Francisco: W.H> Freeman.
Seyle, H. (1956) The Stress of Life New York: McGraw-Hill.
Stone, A.A., Reed, B.R., & Neale, J.M. (1987) Changes in daily event frequency precede episodes of physical symptoms. Journal of Human Stress, 13, 70-4.
Watson, J.B. (1913) Psychology as the behaviourist views it. Psychology Review, 20, 158-77.