We are going to compare the fragments of viral DNA by adding three different enzymes.
DNA finger printing Aim: We are going to compare the fragments of viral DNA by adding three different enzymes. Hypothesis: The fragments that have more base pairs are the ones that are going to be closer to the wells and the control is going to have only one mark. This is because the more base pairs the fragment has the harder of it to move from one side of the gel to the other and because there is no enzyme on the well with the control the DNA is not broken down, this will look as one line. Apparatus: * Microsyringe * Distilled water * Dry lambda DNA * Small tube * EcoRI enzyme * BamHI enzyme * HindI enzyme * Water bath * Agarose gel * Transparent plastic tank * Comb * Loading dye * Electrodes * Two 9V batteries Method: Used plastic gloves cleaned with alcohol during the howled experiment. > Add 100 ul of distilled water to the Lambda DNA tube. Use the 10-ul graduation on the tip 10 times to dispense this. > Cap the tube lightly and allow it to stand for 5 minutes. > Hold the closed tube firmly at the top, and then flick the side repeatedly with a finger to mix the contents. Do this for one full minute. > Allow the tube to stand for a further 5 minutes. The Lambda DNA solution should look slightly opaque. > Add a fresh tip to the microsyringe. Put 20 ul of Lambda ?DNA solution into an enzyme tube of your choice (refer to Fig. 4 for the colour code).
Separation of serum proteins and enzymes bypolyacrylamide gelelectrophoresis (PAGE)
Separation of serum proteins and enzymes by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) Contents: Page(s) Introduction and Aim 3 - 5 Method 6 Diagram of Electrophoresis Tank 7 Results 8 - 9 Discussion 10 - 11 References 12 INTRODUCTION In an average healthy, lean human body the most abundant organic compounds are proteins consisting of over half of the cellular dry weight. A protein is a polymer of its constituent amino acids which determine its structure and chemical properties, having molecular weights ranging from approximately 10.000 to one million. A protein can have many biochemical functions including transport, contraction, catalysis, metabolic regulation, structure and protection. The basic structure of an amino acid includes a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom and an R-group (or side chain) attached to the ?-carbon (see figure 1.) Fig 1. Basic structure of amino acid It is this R-group which is used to classify an amino acid due to their tendency to interact with water at pH 7.0. These ionisable R-groups on the protein surface are vital in electrophoresis, a method used to separate charged proteins on the basis of differing mobilities in an electric field within a buffer system. When a solution of proteins is subjected to an electrical potential their net charge will cause the molecules to migrate towards the positive
"All Human Cloning should be Banned" do you Agree? Sow that you have looked at it through more than one point of view.
"All Human Cloning should be Banned" do you Agree? Sow that you have looked at it through more than one point of view. Human cloning has been a major issue over the past decade or so, at the beginning we started to changed the structure of plants, etc like tomatoes because of the food sources, we made them immune to diseases so that they grew bigger and lasted longer. Nobody thought that that was made, then the scientists managed to clone sheep the first to be called 'Dolly' but they did not want to stop there and they wanted to clone human beings. There are a number of arguments to show if human cloning is good or if it is bad, there are two main points. The first - when does life begin? And the second - high risk in producing deformed individuals. At the moment the scientist can not clone a human but they can do 'Therapeutic cloning' which is the creation of human embryos in a lab to extract embryonic stem cells from them, these stem cells can develop into the chosen organ or cell. The process is still being developed though. Human cloning is a major argument in the world today because there are arguments for and against the cloning. The arguments for are that we could eliminate any form of disease such as heart disease, which kills so many people, if that is stopped, and then we could stop the losses of many people. Cloning could also produce human cells that are able to
Nucleic Acids, DNA replication and protein synthesis.
NUCLEIC ACIDS, DNA REPLICATION AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS BY CHIKA OKOSI How does DNA direct a cell's activities? How does a cell in your liver "know" it's a liver cell and not a brain cell or kidney cell. How can all this information needed to regulate the cell's activities be stuffed into a tiny nucleus? To begin to find the answer to all these questions, an in-depth in the biological molecules nucleic acids needs to be established. An organism has some form of nucleic acid that is the chemical carrier of its genetic information. There are two types of nucleic acids, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) that code for all the information that determines the nature of the organism's cells. In fact DNA codes for all the instructions needed for the cell to perform different functions. Nucleic acids are one of the several macromolecules in the body in addition to facts, proteins and carbohydrates. Nucleic acids are polymers made up of individual molecules linked together in long chains. These molecules are known as nucleotides and the long chain is known as polynucleotides. Nucleotides itself can be further broken down to three components: * A pentose sugar * A nitrogen base * A phosphate group Diagram 1 shows a nucleotide As mentioned above there are two types of nucleic acids: DNA & RNA. DNA stores genetic information, and RNA allows that information
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), a destruction of the immune system resulting from infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). HIV was first isolated in 1983 in Los-Angelus by ______________ first known as 'Gay Cancer' because it was most commonly found in homosexual males was about to become one of the worlds most deadly and most familiar sexually transmitted disease. It was to become general knowledge that HIV could be transmitted by several different types of sex between Homosexual and Heterosexual couples. In the early 90's over twelve thousand cases of AIDS were recorded this was only the start of the world epidemic, which has now reached as staggering 47 million cases world wide. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), member of the Retroviridae family of viruses (commonly known as retroviruses), and classified in the subfamily lentiviruses. These viruses have several common features: a long incubation period before disease onset, infection of blood cells and the nervous system, and an association with immune suppression. Retroviruses are classified by their unique feature, the need to convert their genomic RNA into DNA (the process of reverse transcription) using an enzyme that they carry (reverse transcriptase). Human infection with HIV results in a complex clinical disease known as acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) that may take ten years
Questions for Cell Cycle 1) Briefly describe all phases of the cell cycle and tell what happens in each.
The Cell Cycle Keila Woods Grand Canyon University BIO 100L January 19, 2011 The Cell Cycle Directions: Answer the following questions. Cite references as needed. Be sure to read the required Module 3 readings and view the required Web sites before completing the assignment. Cell Cycle Questions for Cell Cycle ) Briefly describe all phases of the cell cycle and tell what happens in each. a) Interphase: Before a cell can enter cell division, it needs to take in nutrients. All of the preparations are done during the interphase. Interphase proceeds in three stages, G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase. Cell division operates in a cycle. Therefore, interphase is preceded by previous cycle mitosis and cytokinesis (Module 3 Reading). a. G1 phase: The cell increases the supply of proteins and increases its organelles. b. S phase: Linear chromosome is replicated. c. G2 phase: Increases protein preparing to replicate. b) M phase: this phase consist of nuclear division karyokinesis. This phase has been broken down into several distinct phases, sequentially known as (Krogh, 2009, p. 191). . Prophase: Chromosomes take shape: the two centrosomes begin to move toward the cellular poles, spouting microtubules as they go 2. Metaphase: Microtubules attach to sister chromatids and align them at the metaphase plate. 3. Anaphase: Sister chromatids are moved to opposite poles in the cell,
DNA amplification by Polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
Carly Brooks 29 November 2002 DNA amplification by Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) Brief introduction to modern PCR The amplification of a segment of DNA can be achieved using PCR resulting in multiple copies of the target sequence. This occurs in a three-stage cycle consisting of denaturation, annealing and extension from primers, the product of which increases exponentially because the number of new DNA strands is doubled in each cycle. The process is an enzymatic reaction and includes the following components; two oligodeoxynucleotide primers, each binding to a strand of template DNA, a thermostable DNA polymerase able to work at the high and varied temperatures required during PCR and four deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates (dNTP), used to extend the primers. History behind PCR PCR, invented in 1985 by Kary Mullis who received a Nobel Prize for the discovery in 1993, first utilised the Klenow fragment of E. coli DNA polymerase I for the reaction (Klug and Cummings 1997). This enzyme denatures at lower temperatures than those needed to denature template DNA and so additional polymerase had to be added after each cycle, in order to continue amplification of the target sequence. Advances in this process include the use of thermostable DNA polymerases, which resist denaturation at high temperatures and so an initial aliquot if polymerase can last
Human Cloning?
Cloning The term "cloning" refers to three very different procedures with three very different goals. It is very unfortunate that the first though many people have when they hear the term cloning is of horror movies which have showed the creation of human monsters or of armies of super human soldiers. The reality of cloning is very different. The three types of cloning are: Embryo Cloning: This is a medical technique, which produces monozygotic (identical) twins or triplets. It duplicates the process that nature uses to produce twins or triplets. One or more cells are removed from a fertilized embryo and encouraged to develop into one or more duplicate embryos. Twins are thus formed, with identical DNA. This has been done for many years on various species of animals; only very limited experimentation has been done on humans. Adult DNA cloning: This technique involves removing the DNA from an embryo and replacing it with the DNA from an adult animal. Then, the embryo is allowed to develop into a new animal with the same DNA as the donor. This technique was used to clone Dolly the sheep but has yet to be tried on humans. Therapeutic Cloning: This technique would involve growing replacement organs from a sample of a person's DNA. The procedure would likely involve the use of a human embryo that has been modified by cell nuclear replacement, and the extraction of the
Discuss the likely advantages and problems arising from the introduction of genetically modified agricultural crops.
Discuss the likely advantages and problems arising from the introduction of genetically modified agricultural crops. There is a ever increasing debate regarding genetically modified crops in today's society, the simplest definition of a genetically modified organism is one in which the genetic structure has been changed in a way that does not occur naturally. In agriculture, genetic engineering allows simple genetic traits to be transferred to crop plants from natural relatives. Genetically modifying the human food supply is a much discussed issue, with scientists all over the world arguing on each side which is likely to continue. Pro GM lobbyist argue that GM crops have many advantages such as; healthier foods, crops produced more efficiently, crops containing vaccines, more environmentally friendly, GM engineering will also help boost the economy by creating more jobs within the bio technology companies. The arguments put forward against GM crops by many scientists include; there have not been sufficient test to prove GM crops do not pose a potential risk to individual health and the environment, GM crops could effect non GM crops which could lead to a cross contamination within the natural environment which could have a profound effect upon the natural wildlife. GM crops only benefit biotechnology companies. There are several advantages of Genetic engineering. It is
stem cell research
The current and potential therapeutic uses of stem cells Introduction: Medical researchers believe that stem cells therapy has the potential to cure human diseases and alleviate suffering. A number of stem cell treatments exist, but often they are too expensive for daily use, with the notable exception of bone marrow transplant. Although it is widely accepted that stem cells research can improve physical impairments, various social, scientific and technological uncertainties are likely to hinder any further progress. Technology of stem cells therapy: Stem cells are primal cells found in all multicellular organisms. They have the ability to renew themselves through the process of mitosis, and can differentiate into a board range of different specialized cell types. The three major mammalian stem cells are embryonic stem cells, derived from blastocysts, adult stem cells, which are found in adult tissues, and cord blood stem cells, which are found in the umbilical cord. These stem cells can undergo mitosis under laboratory conditions and transformed into specialized cells. Stem cells are said to have unlimited potency, indicating the capability to differentiate into any mature cell type. Current and Potential therapeutic uses of stem cells: Over the last 30 years bone marrow and more recently umbilical cord blood stem cells have been used to treat cancer patients with
