The Precondition Model proposes the existence of 4 preconditions, which incorporate four separate factors. Each successive precondition depends causally on the previous one, and a progressive interaction between preconditions and factors is necessary for the offence to occur (Finkelhor, 1984). Precondition 1 explains three motivational factors; emotional congruence (emotional gratification of sexual contact with a child), sexual arousal in the presence or thought of a child, and the existence of a blockage, whereby sexual gratification is otherwise inaccessible. These three factors must be in place in order to transform deviant thoughts into a deviant act. A second precondition involves overcoming any internal inhibitions about having sexual contact with the child. Some of these disinhibiting factors may be achieved through transient (e.g. alcohol) or more enduring (cognitive distortions) proximal factors, the effect of which enables justification for the deviant behaviour, which in turn may act to trigger the deviant act. The third and fourth preconditions are concerned with how the offender creates the opportunity to gain access to the child and overcome possible resistance. Finkelhor also stresses that different needs motivate different offenders, and a history of family abuse, as well as social and cultural influences also play a part in at least some forms of child sexual abuse (Finkelhor 1984).
The strength of the Precondition Model lies in its attention to the diversity of complex issues and processes of child molestation, by attempting to link a broad range of underlying factors to the offence sequence (Ward & Hudson, 2001). Such an approach can form a good basis for assessment of child molesters. For example it can develop child molester typologies by highlighting diverse preferences, patterns, and processes used by child molesters in order to achieve their goal. It also highlights the dynamic nature of child molestation since each precondition is sequentially causal over time. However, the use of diverse psychological theories within its theoretical framework is problematic, since they offer conflicting explanations of why vulnerability [such as emotional congruence] results in a sexual offence. For instance, a psychoanalytic explanation may attribute it to castration anxiety, whereas a social learning explanation would highlight a lack of heterosexual skills. Moreover, the Precondition Model cannot explain why its resultant effect is directed toward children in a sexual way as opposed to just being friendly (Ward & Hudson, 2001). There is also an over-emphasis of the role of proximal factors such as disinhibition and its place in the sequence of events. However, if offenders are already strongly motivated, they are unlikely to have inhibitions about their goal (Ward, 2002). Finally, there is a lack of attention to distal factors such as early developmental experiences and biological features, which are also thought to be antecedents to sexual offending (Ward 2000).
Some of the limitations of the Precondition Model have been addressed by an alternative psychological theory developed by Marshall and Barbaree (1990). The Integrated Theory draws on attachment theory and intimacy research and emphasizes the role of developmental, biological, socio-cultural, functional and psychological features and their interrelationships in order to explain child molestation. Attachment style is thought to have an important influence on the internal working models of child molesters relative to themselves and others. For example, Marshall and Barabee (1990) suggest that insecure attachment in early life may lead to low self esteem, impaired problem solving, problems with mood management and distorted expectations concerning the emotional availability of others, (Marshall & Barbaree, 1990). In addition, abusive or neglectful family environments are also thought to distort internal working models of relationships (Ward, 2002). The Integrated Theory posits that these developmental and socio-cultural factors act as an antecedent to later vulnerability to sexually offend, as well as prevent the development of normal social and intimacy skills needed to prepare for the transition through adolescence; a transition that is difficult for most children but is thought to be more so for vulnerable individuals (Ward & Hudson, 2001).
According to the Integrated Theory, the intimacy and social skills deficits experienced by vulnerable individuals also interact with biological factors. For instance, during the critical period of puberty, a massive increase of male sex hormones means that self-regulation responses to sexual cues are crucial (Ward & Hudson, 2001). Furthermore, since sex and aggression is thought to be mediated by the same neural substrate of the brain Marshall and Barabee suggest it is important for pubescent males to separate them appropriately and inhibit aggression in a sexual context (Marshall & Barabee, 1990). However the vulnerable individual’s inability to distinguish between sex and aggression, may serve to fuse the two and this, combined with inappropriate responses to sexual cues [due to a lack of necessary skills], can lead to sexual and emotional needs being satisfied by deviant behaviour (Craissati, McClurg and Browne, 2002). This may lead to rejection by potential romantic partners and resultant anger, low self esteem and distorted cognitions about relationships with adults (Ward, Hudson & Marshall, 1996). Consequently, a vulnerable male may view young children as a safer way of meeting his need for intimacy or personal effectiveness. These developmental, social and biological antecedents also interact with more transient proximal factors such as alcohol or strong negative affect. These act to disinhibit the individual’s ability to control the desire to sexually offend, and even if levels of vulnerability are low, high proximal factors are thought to be powerful enough to trigger deviant sexual behaviour, just as high levels of vulnerability need only low level proximal factors (Ward, T, 2000).
The strength of Marshall and Barabee’s Integrated Theory lies in its ability to account for the interrelationships of developmental, social, psychological and biological factors as a means of explaining the aetiology of child molestation. For example, it traces the origin of social and intimacy skill vulnerabilities to developmental deficits and family dysfunction, which in turn not only prevent the formation of normal adult romantic relationships, but triggered by interrelating proximal factors, may also promote inappropriate relationships with children (Marshall & Barabee, 1990). The theory also explains how cognitive distortions enable initial deviant behaviour, which increases the child molesters levels of self esteem and interpersonal closeness, the result of which reinforces the original behaviour and maintains the cycle of child abuse (Kaufman, 1998, cited in Perkins et al., 1998, p 4).
Marshall and Barabee’s Integrated Theory therefore manages to address the developmental and biological limitations of Finkelhor’s Precondition Model and has led to treatments that can specifically examine factors such as intimacy deficits (Marshall, 1996). However its general nature does not deal with the heterogeneity of offender motives and pathways of offending. Nor does the emphasis of male hormones explain why females may sexually molest a child. It also ignores offender typology. For example, although it can account for preferential offenders [through its explanation of biological influences at the age of puberty], it cannot explain why later onset situational offenders [who have made an adequate transition through puberty, and do not lack relationship or social skills], go on to offend in later life. Like the Precondition Model, it also places too much emphasis on disinhibition, since it is thought that only a small number of offenders have major problems with self-regulation (Hudson, Ward and McCormack, 1999, cited in Ward 2002). A further limitation of the theory lies in its inadequate proposal that child molesters are generally insecurely attached. This was addressed by Ward, Hudson and Marshall’s (1996) study of sub categories of insecure attachment of sexual and non-sexual offenders. Their findings revealed that insecure attachment was found in all offenders studied, however child molesters were more fearful or anxiously attached compared with dismissive attachment styles of rapists. The Integrated Theory should address these noteworthy findings, as their implications are important for accurate assessment and treatment of child molesters. It should be noted however, that not everyone who is abused or insecurely attached goes on to sexually offend (which cannot be explained by the theory). Finally, since aggression is not a common factor involved in child molestation (Knight & Prentky, 1990, cited in Ward, 2002) the Integrated Theory cannot adequately relate aggression or its fusion with sex to this kind of sexual offender.
Thus, Whilst both the Precondition and Integrated Theories of child molestation have made significant contributions to understanding and explaining child sexual abuse, each lacks sufficient explanation of child molesting in important areas such as offender heterogeneity and elements of developmental and biological factors, which if developed and refined could lead to more comprehensive classification, assessment and treatment programmes for offenders (Marshall, 1996).
Child molesters cannot be cured (Silverman & Wilson, 2002), and it has been shown that detention alone has no effect on the rate of relapse (Blanchard, 2000). Therefore it has been acknowledged that all sex offenders require some form of treatment, even if they do not all require the same intensity, duration or type of treatment. In fact it is thought that inappropriately intense treatment levels may actually increase the chances of re-offending (Gordon & Porporino, 1990). Biological therapies offer chemical castration as a method of reducing libido in order to control the urge to perform deviant behaviours (e.g. Depo-Provera: Meyer, 1992, cited in Perkins et al., 1998). However, such a reductionist biological approach does not address dynamic developmental, social or psychological factors of child sex abuse, and poses ethical issues in terms of freedom of choice. Moreover, the drugs produce side effects, may discourage continuation, seriously undermining any level of effectiveness.
More contemporary therapies suggest that a concept of ‘wellness’ should drive rehabilitation rather than reduction of risk to others alone (Ellerby, Bedard & Chartrand, 2000, cited in Ward & Stewart, 2002). For instance psychodynamic therapies concentrate on lifting repressions, which have resulted from unresolved early childhood conflicts; through a process of free association and dream analysis. However, insufficient empirical data, of this type of therapy makes it difficult to evaluate its effectiveness (Becker, 1994) and since as (Marshall and Pithers, 1994, cited in Perkins et al., 1998) suggest, a single therapy type is not adequate for most offenders, it seems sensible to use a combination of therapies.
Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is thought to be a more effective therapeutic approach in terms of reduction in recidivism rates of child molesters (Furby, Weinrott and Blackshaw, 1989, cited in Perkins et al., 1998). For instance the core programme of the UK run Sex Offender Treatment Programme (SOPT), which is largely a group-based programme based on CBT (Pithers, Marques, Gibat and Marlatt, 1983, cited in Marshall, 1996) teaches the offender to manage deviant sexual urges, and abstain from future sexually deviant behaviour. This is achieved through the exploration of factors that lead to sexual offences, such as specific distorted cognitions and behaviours. This process helps the offender to understand his individual offence chain and cycle and he is encouraged to take responsibility for deviant actions. He is also shown how to gain control in possible ‘high risk to re-offend’ situations through the use of devised ‘diversions’ that aim to interrupt the sexual offence path (Campbell & Lerew, 2002). Another important element of the therapy is the development of empathy and intimacy skills (Silverman & Wilson, 2002). It has also been suggested that antidepressants can be used as an aid to relapse prevention where offenders have poor impulse control (Davis & Leitenberg, 1987).
The efficacy of such treatments for child molesters is measured by relapse rates over time. McGrath, Cumming, Livingston and Hoke (2003) found that over a mean follow-up period of almost 6 years, the sexual re-offence rate for 195 adult male sex offenders who had received institution based CBT was 5.4%, as opposed to 30.6% receiving ‘some’ treatment and 30% who received no treatment. Thus treatment can at least delay or even prevent recidivism in some child molesters. Furthermore, even lower relapse rates have been found when treatment is continued in the form of aftercare treatment and supervision services in the community (McGrath, Cumming, Livingston & Hoke, 2003). In spite of cautiously promising developments in treatment programmes, there is a need to tailor treatments more to individual needs and risk factors (Perkins, Hammond, Coles & Bishopp, 1998), and a lack of funding for such programmes may mean that only some offenders receive adequate therapy in terms of nature, length and intensity. Moreover, any treatment process could be seriously hampered by social rejection of the child molester post imprisonment. Thus community programmes such as the American devised ‘Circles’ which consists of volunteers who offer support and supervision for child molesters and joint initiatives that integrate ‘police, probation, child protection and therapy services’ (Perkins et al., 1998, p 4) may enable a smoother transition from institutional treatment to community support and supervision. Furthermore, in view of the high incidence of juvenile sex offending, a preventative philosophy of health promotion aimed at young people may enable early identification of potential offenders (Silverman & Wilson, 2002).
In conclusion, psychological research and theory has to a degree helped to explain child molestation, although none have hitherto offered an all-encompassing explanation of its onset, development and maintenance. Single factor models provide in depth information about specific factors, descriptive models provide typologies, which aid the understanding of offender heterogeneity, and together they form the basis of more complex multi-factorial models of child molesting. Specifically the Precondition and Integrated Theories of child molesters address various interrelating elements of developmental, biological, socio-cultural and psychological aspects of child molesting. The former provides logical account of motivational and disinhibiting factors involved in child molesting, and the latter provides clearer explanations of why sexual offending occurs. Nevertheless, both have limitations that can affect the efficacy of both assessment and subsequent treatment of offenders. In spite of theoretical limitations however, treatments based on multifactorial theories (e.g. CBT) are thought to be more effective than no treatment or biological treatment, as they deal directly with deviant behaviour and distorted cognitions in order to make a lasting change. However a more idiographic approach to treatment, which addresses the heterogeneity of child molesters in addition to social support, and supervision within the community may enable some of these offenders to lead law-abiding lives. Health promotion for the young may also help to identify potential future offenders. But for the moment, it is still some way off.
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However, there may be an underestimation of the number of female sex offenders (Finkelhor, 1989, cited in Campbell & Lerew, 2002).
However penetration is less likely (Feldman, 1993).
However it might be more appropriately associated with rapists.
However, diversity in methodology and therapeutic techniques are problematic (Perkins et al., 1998).
However, treatment is generally thought to be more effective for low deviancy offenders (Beckett et al., 1994, cited in Perkins et al., 1998).
