Ironic effects in memory: Does being told to ignore a list of words lead to better memory for such a list

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Ironic effects in memory: Does being told to ignore a list of words lead to better memory for such a list.

Abstract

A study is reported which tested the ironic processing theory proposed by Wegner (1994). Two groups of participants were presented with a list of words using a tape recorder and headphones. At the same time as being presented with the list of words both groups were told to look at a booklet containing several pictures and asked to memorise them. One group were explicitly instructed to ignore the words presented using the tape recorder, the other group were not. In line with Wegner's theory it was predicted that those participants who were instructed to ignore the words would in fact remember more of them. Analysis of the number of words correctly recognised by the two groups revealed that there was no significant difference between them. It was suggested that the similarity of the two tasks given to participants was responsible for the large variability in the number of words recognised by those in both groups.

Introduction

        It is quite common for individuals to find that they cannot control the amount they worry (see Eysenck, 1992). Often such individuals try desperately not to worry about something only to find themselves thinking even more about it than they would normally. Wegner (1994) has suggested that these individuals are the victims of ironic processes. Ironic effects occur when you are deliberately trying to do something, and find yourself doing completely the opposite, e.g. staying awake when you desperately want to sleep. They also occur when you are trying not to do something, which you inevitably end up doing, e.g. worrying when trying not to.

        Ironic processes have been around for a long time, but an explanation for them has recently been proposed by Dan Wegner (1994). Wegner and his colleagues have identified certain conditions which appear to increase the likelihood of ironic effects occurring. Wegner (1994) has argued that when we deliberately try to do something or try not to do something, two mental processes are set in motion. The first of these, which Wegner calls the Operating Process, endeavours to create a state of mind whereby the desired effects are more likely to occur. It does this by searching for items that are consistent with the desired state of mind. This process is a conscious process and requires effort on the part of the person seeking a desired behaviour. Alongside this operating process is a non-conscious process which looks out for failures to achieve the desired behaviour, this Wegner has called the Monitoring Process. Wegner argues that the very monitoring for such failures ensures that, under certain conditions, we are more likely to fail in our attempts to control our thoughts and behaviours. Wegner suggests failures in control are more likely when the Operating Process is weakened. He suggests that because the operating process is conscious, and because we have a limited capacity for conscious processing, that the operating process will be weakened when some other conscious processing task is required.

        Wegner thus argues that we are more likely to fail in our attempts at control of our thoughts or behaviour when we are required to undertake some other conscious processing task. He has illustrated this in many studies. For example, Ansfield, Wegner and Bowser (1996) gave students a cassette to take home and play to themselves using a Walkman when they wanted to go to sleep. Half the students were told that they should try to go to sleep as quickly as possible, the others were simply told to sleep whenever they wanted to. Also, half of the participants in each of these groups were given calming music to listen to and half were given very rousing music. It was found that the rousing music, which Wegner equated with high mental load, only affected the sleep times of the people who were instructed to sleep as quickly as possible. Those participants who were instructed to go to sleep as quickly as possible and were given the rousing music took the longest to fall asleep.

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        In another demonstration of ironic effects, Wegner and Ansfield (1994) asked participants to hold a pendulum and instructed them to make sure that the pendulum did not swing in a particular direction. Half of the participants were given a high mental load task to carry out, that is to count backwards from 1000 in intervals of 7, the rest were given no mental load task. They found that there was much more movement in the forbidden direction for those in the high mental load condition than those in the no mental load condition.

        These two studies confirm Wegner's prediction that ...

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