An investigation into the effect on the amount of words a participant is able to recall after using a structural, phonological or semantic level of processing to answer questions about the words presented

Abstract

This experiment is based on the work of Craik and Lockhart and on the levels of processing theory. The levels of processing theory suggests that the extent of which information can be remembered is dependent on the level of processing the piece of information has undergone to be stored.

The aim of the experiment is to see if participants are more likely to recall a greater amount of words that previously required semantic processing rather than words that previously required structural or phonological processing.

The experimental hypothesis states that ‘Significantly more words from questions that require semantic processing to answer a question will be recalled later compared to words that needed a structural or phonological level of processing.’

The investigation took place in the form of an experiment therefore an independent variable, the type of processing: semantic, phonological or structural was manipulated and the dependent variable, the amount of words recalled of each process was measured. Being an experiment, extraneous variables were controlled. The design of this experiment is repeated measures whereby, all twenty participants use all the independent variables throughout the single task.

Opportunity sampling method was used concentrating on a target population of sixth form students from Tapton School in Sheffield, South Yorkshire. Ethical treatment and considerations of all participants were met.

A simple questionnaire was proposed to participants consisting of questions each in relation to a word situated next to the question that required a ‘yes or ‘no’ answer to. Each question required a semantic, phonological or structural level of processing in order to answer the question associated with the word. The questionnaire was taken from the participant upon completion and they were then asked to recall the words that were situated next to the questions, therefore measuring the effect of processing on memory.

The results were statistically analysed using mean, median, mode and standard deviation to see if the experimental or null hypothesis was relevant. The mean amount of words recalled for the semantically processed words was 4.05, higher than the mean of phonologically processed words 1.95 and significantly higher than that of structurally processed words, 1.00.

In conclusion the results of this study showed that a significantly greater amount of words could be recalled when processed semantically as opposed to being processed phonologically or structurally. It showed that semantic is the deepest level of processing, followed by phonological and then structural, therefore providing evidence for Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing theory.

Introduction

The levels of processing model concentrates on the processes involved in memory. The idea was put forward by Craik and Lockhart (1972) as an alternative to the multi-store model. The concept of the theory is that memory happens as a result of processing information

Craik and Lockhart conducted a study about the levels of processing used when concerning memory. Participants were put into three groups and asked a series of questions. Each question they proposed had a word that the question referred to directly next to it. After the questions were completed the participants were asked to recall the words. There were three types of questions and one type of question was assigned to each group. The three types of question each represented one of the three levels of processing. These levels are called structural (visual), phonological (auditory) and semantic (meaning). Craik and Lockhart suggested that the storage of memory and ability to recall and retrieve the information depended on the depth to which that piece of information had been encoded.

Craik and Lockhart believed that the deepest processing occurs during a semantic level, then followed by a phonological level and with the shallowest process being structural. They defined each term as:

  • Structural – visual images or what the word looks like e.g. colour of font, type of font as well as capital and lower case letters etc.
  • Phonological – auditory process dealing with what the word sounds like e.g. rhyming words etc.
  • Semantic – the meaning of the word

The overall percentage of words that were recalled from structural questions was 15%. Phonological questions produced 35% of words recalled. The percentage of words recalled that were from semantic questions was much greater at 70%.

The results of Craik and Lockhart’s study showed that participants were more likely to be able to recall a larger amount of words that were processed semantically rather than structurally or phonologically. The conclusion of their experiment was that the ‘meaningfulness’ of a word has a greater effect on the recall of words due to the level at which the information has been processed.

Craik and Lockhart’s theory has been praised for concentrating on the processing of memory. The idea that the processing level effects memory recall more than the amount of rehearsal was successfully proved and accepted.  However this theory has been criticised for being ‘descriptive rather than explanatory’.

        

The aim of the experiment is to see if participants are more likely to recall a greater amount of words that previously required semantic processing rather than words that previously required structural or phonological processing.

Experimental Hypothesis: ‘Significantly more words from questions that require semantic processing to answer a question will be recalled later compared to words that needed a structural or phonological level of processing’

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Null Hypothesis: ‘There will be no significant difference in the amount of words recalled from structural, phonological and semantic questions’

Method

A questionnaire has been developed to assess participants recall ability when different levels of processing are required. This questionnaire will consist of eighteen questions each associated to a word positioned next to the question. The participant will have to answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to each question. They will have two minutes to answer these questions. After completion of the questionnaire it will be taken away and the participant will have to write down all the words ...

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