Essay Writing On The Formation Of A.T.P
Essay Writing On The Formation Of A.T.P In the process of respiration there are 38 molecules of ATP, which are formed. This is done by a series of stages, which happen within all living cells. ATP is the short-term energy store of the cell. It is often called the 'energy currency' since it picks up energy from food in respiration and passes it on to power cell processes. The four stages are known as, glycolysis, link reaction, kreb cycle and the electron transport chain. In the process of glycolysis, we are basically splitting up a glucose molecule into a three carbon chained pyruvates molecule, and this takes place within the cytoplasm, furthermore it is the only stage of anaerobic respiration. In the primary stage of thus first part of the whole process the glucose molecule is phosphorylated to make glucose phosphate by having one molecule of ATP transferred into ADP + Pi. The ATP basically lowers the activation energy in order to make the reaction more efficient. The glucose phosphate is further phosphorylated in order to produce fructose bisphosphate, using ATP, again for the same reason as above. At this stage, all the molecules produced are still 6 carbon molecules. Once the fructose bisphosphate has been produced, it then reacts and splits into two separate molecules of
DNA Damage and Nucleotide Excision Repair. With the frequent occurrence of changes in a cell it is important to have DNA repair mechanisms like NER, to prevent mutations, cancer, and the death of the cell or organism.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid commonly known as DNA is the genetic material found in all living organisms and is responsible for passing hereditary characteristics from one generation to the next. In doing so, it is "constantly subjected to alteration by cellular metabolites and exogenous DNA-damaging agents" (Sancar, Lindsay-Boltz, Ünsal-Kaçmaz, & Linn, 2004). Not only can the process of DNA replication cause frequent chemical changes but also exposure to the following agents can alter the DNA of an organism: ionizing radiation (gamma rays and x-rays), ultraviolet rays, oxygen radicals, chemicals in the environment, and chemotherapy (Mullenders, Stary, & Sarasin, 2001). These agents can have severe affects on an organism's genetic material by covalently or non-covalently modifying the bases of DNA at different positions thus resulting in, base pair mismatches, breaks in the backbone, and cross-links where covalent linkages are formed between bases (Sancar et al. , 2004). For the genetic information within DNA to remain uncorrupted, it is vital that any chemical changes made to the DNA of a cell be repaired in order to continue proper cell function. Not repairing DNA results in mutation, cancer, and the death of the cell or organism (Sancar et al. , 2004). The damage DNA of an organism contains DNA system repairs that stimulate cell responses to deal with numerous DNA damages
To Identify 5 Given Oils By Testing Their Viscosity At Different Temperatures.
To identify 5 given oils by testing their viscosity at different temperatures. Scientific research: We know that oil comes out of the ground is called crude oil. Crude oil was formed from the remains of tiny sea animals and plants, which died millions of years ago. It is a mixture of substances called hydrocarbons. These are compounds of hydrogen and carbon. "At an oil refinery, the different substances in crude oil are separated in a fractionating tower. The oil is boiled so that most rises up the tower as vapour (gas). As it rises, it cools different substances condense (turn to liquid) at different temperatures, and are collected at different levels. The different parts of mixture are called fractions. Separating fractions by boiling is called fractional distillation. Heavier Fractions have longer molecules than lighter fractions. Using a chemical process called cracking, long molecules can be broken up to make shorter ores. So, if there is too much diesel oil, It can be changed into petrol by cracking. Short molecules can also be joined together to make longer ones. This process is called polymerisation." (Source 1) Cracking Hydrocarbons with large molecules have higher boiling points than those with smaller molecules. They also burn less easily. To get more useful fuel, a large hydrocarbon molecule can be cracked by heating with steam or a catalyst. Two smaller
Bounded Buffer Module
Bounded Buffer Module A Bounded Buffer is a data store that may hold a finite number of values. It behaves as a first-in first-out queue: values leave in order in which they arrive. We will develop a programming language implementation of a bounded buffer with three operations: • BufferInit - an initialisation • BufferIn, providing input to the buffer • BufferOut, accepting output from the buffer. We must specify these operations, design , and implement them. . Specification The state of a bounded buffer will include three components: • buffer: a sequences of values • size: the number of values present • maxsize: an indication of the buffer's capacity. The sequence buffer, and the state itself, will use a generic parameter X to refer to the type of values to be stored: ===Buffer[X]================= buffer : seq X size : N maxsize : N size = # buffer size ? maxsize At initialization, the bounded buffer is empty: buffer is equal to the empty sequence and size is zero: ===BufferInit[X]============== Buffer'[X] buffer'=<> The capacity of the buffer cannot be changed after instantiation; this fact is recorded as an invariant in the following schema: ===UpdateBuffer[X]============ Buffer[X] Buffer'[X] maxsize' = maxsize If the buffer is not full, an item may be inserted: ===BufferIn0 [X]============== UpdateBuffer[X] x? : X size < maxsize
Bacterial Leaching
Bacterial Leaching Blue green streams of liquid found running from tailing dumps which left brown streaks of copper over iron implements at the Rio Tinto mine, Spain led to the discovery of micro-organisms by a team of microbiologists in 1947. These bacteria Thiobacillus ferro-oxidans and Thiobacillus thio-oxidans obtained the energy they needed to live by oxidising Fe2+ ions and S2- ions, respectively. In doing so these bacteria release copper bonded or trapped in compounds with Fe and S. This new breakthrough is known as Biohydrometallurgy. In use waste left from traditional copper mining is piled up on top of impermeable ground. It is sprayed with an acidic leaching solution, which contains the t. ferro-oxidans and T. thio-oxidans. Working best in an acidic environment of ph2 they oxidise Fe2+ ions S2- ions releasing Cu2+ ions in to the solution. 4CuFeS2 + 17O2 + 4H+ ==> 4Cu2+ + 4Fe3+ + 8SO42- + 2H2O The solution Is then drained of from the bottom of the pile, so that the copper ions can be removed by the process of ligand exchange solvent extraction, in this a compound which is a good ligand for copper is dissolved in a solvent which is immiscible with water (doesn't mix). It is then mixed with the solution containing the Cu2+ ions the ligand then binds with the Cu ions as below. Cu2+ (aq) + 2LH (organic) CuL2 (organic) + 2H+ (aq) This process can then be reversed
The objective of this lab was to determine if different cultures would successfully grow on diverse agar medias and to distinguish the appearance of growth on the mediums.
The objective of this lab was to determine if different cultures would successfully grow on diverse agar medias and to distinguish the appearance of growth on the mediums. The experiment involved three different types of growth medias - selective, differential and enriched. The experiment also involved four broth cultures - Escherichia Coli, Enterobacter Aerogenes, Staphylococcus Epidermidis and Streptococcus Faecalis. Selective media was a growth medium that enhanced and inhibited the growth of certain organisms due to an added media component (Madigan et al., 2012). The selective medium used in this experiment was KF Streptococcal Agar. Differential media allowed the identification of microorganisms based on observable properties (Madigan et al., 2012). In this experiment, the differential media used was Eosin Methylene Blue (EMB) Agar. The methylene blue in EMB inhibited the growth of gram-positive bacteria and only allowed gram-negative organisms to be grown. EMB had a pH of 7.2 and used lactose and sucrose for energy. (Madigan et al., 2012) Enriched media allowed metabolically fastidious organisms to be grown because of the added specific growth factors (Madigan et al., 2012). The Tryptic Soy Agar was used as the enriched media in this experiment. TSA was mainly used as a control for growth medium. It was also used to observe colony morphology, to develop a pure
Mast Cell Degranulation Practical
Mast Cell Degranulation Practical ________________ . I can observe from the class results that the untreated cells (The control group) had highest percentage of cells that gave a degranulation score of 0 (53.62) when compared to cells that have been treated with 48/80 (23.68), SCG (48.08) and Salbutamol (36.48). I did predict that the control cells would have had a score higher than those treated with 48/80 but I expected the cells treated with SCG and Salbutamol to have a higher percentage of cells that gave a score of 0 compared to the control. After having done research, I found out that there are endogenous factors that also cause degranulation and treating the cells with SCG or Salbutamol would not inhibit this process that has already started (Shen, W. & Louie, S. G. 1999). Therefore after careful observation, I can clearly see that there is not much difference between the control and the cells treated with SCG or Salbutamol. The cells that gave the highest percentage for degranulation score ++ was the 48/80 treated cells (39.53) and they gave a percentage of 36.79 for partial degranulation. This was also expected since the polymer 48/80 triggers degranulation in mast cells. 2. The class results agree with my prediction to an extent as I predicted that when 48/80 and SCG were added to the cells, then there would be a higher percentage of cells with
How is NADPH produced in (a) Photosynthetic AND (b) Non-photosynthetic cells? How and where are ketone bodies (a) synthesised AND (b) utilised?
How is NADPH produced in (a) Photosynthetic AND (b) Non-photosynthetic cells? Give examples of how NADPH may be used in each case. NADPH is produced in photosynthetic cells by the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis in order to be used for reduction of carbon atoms in the light-independent stage, or the Calvin Cycle. NADPH is produced in the light reactions which convert light energy into chemical energy. Photons absorbed by photosystem II in the thylakoid membrane, and the energy is used to break down water and release two electrons which are excited and begin to move along an electron transport chain in the membrane. As they move along, they release energy and pass through cytochrome bf, which is used to generate a proton-motive force and generate ATP until the electrons reach photosystem I. Photosystem I absorbs photons with wavelength 700nm and uses the energy to excite the electrons again, so that they can move further along the transport chain and eventually combine with NADP+ and H+ to give NADPH. NADPH is used in the Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts and synthesises hexoses from carbon dioxide and water. In order to oxidise NADPH by this process, ribulose 5-phosphate is first phosphorylated by R5P kinase to generate ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate. This is carboxylated and broken down by CO2 to give two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate