Moreton Bay Marine Ecology
![Authors Avatar]()
by
eblanch25gmailcom (student)
________________
Contents Page
Contents
Introduction 2
Argument 1: Biotic Factors 3
Biodiversity 3
Indicator Species 5
Argument 2: Abiotic Factors 6
Sediment Life and Sediment Size 6
Water Temperature 8
Recommendation 9
Conclusion 10
Appendix 10
12
Bibliography 20
________________
Introduction
Moreton Bay Marine Park is made up of islands, open oceans and reefs covering more than 3400 km2, and is one of the least troubled coastal environments along the Queensland coast (About Moreton Bay, 2015). Over the past 150 years, Moreton Bay has been taken advantage of and has been used for sand mining, coral mining, whaling and fishing, and has become increasingly polluted from the coastal development of surrounding areas (Winton, Moreton Bay Marine Park, 2017). In 1993, the first Marine Park was opened in the area of Moreton Bay, which although was a big step towards the preservation of vulnerable marine species and their habitats, it left 99% of the bay open to fishing. In 2009, a new zoning plan was released for Moreton Bay, meaning that 16% of the bay is now a designated marine national park zone, and a further 8% has a conservation status for recreational and commercial activities (Marine Parks (Moreton Bay) Zoning Plan 2008, 2004).
https://image.issuu.com/110518022348-415a513325c84d99b643ee4a562e246a/jpg/page_1.jpg
Marine reserves are areas inside a marine park that exclude all extractive activities and are mainly managed for the conservation of their ecosystems, habitats and the marine life they support (Why marine reserves are important, 2015). In Australia, Marine reserves are multi-use areas and allow a wide range of activities according to different zones (Winton, Marine Parks, 2017). The benefits of Green Zones include; protecting spawning areas and nursery grounds, providing refuge for protected species, boost species numbers, increasing the abundance of fish, minimising damage to important habitats and building the resilience of the reef against certain threats such as water pollution or climate change (Zoning, Permits and Plans, 2016).
Green zones have been instigated by governments across the world in order to improve and aid the marine ecosystem, the habitats and the animals that live there. There are many success stories from the implementation of green zones including the Cabo Pulmo reef in Mexico. Research has recorded that the fish biomass has increased by 460%, the average biomass was more than five times greater than the average biomass in the Gulf of California, and that manta rays, humpback whales, whale sharks and sea turtle populations recovered in the area (Cabo Pulmo: A Marine Protected Area enables biodiversity and the local economy to rebound, 2014).
The aim of this report is to evaluate the Green Zone at Saint Helena Island to determine whether or not the current Green Zone should be extended to include Green Island. In order to provide an accurate and justified recommendation to the Queensland Government, primary and secondary data as well as fish stock population and health will be evaluated to determine the impact of the green zone on Saint Helena Island and to determine the factors that influence the fish stock populations in both areas. There will be two main arguments that will be covered in this report including the biodiversity and indicator species of both Green Island and Saint Helena Island. Through the research conducted at Moreton Bay, and the evaluation of both primary and secondary data collected, the decision that is justifiable and responsible for both the present and the future is to extend the current green zone from Saint Helena Island to Green Island. This will benefit the biodiversity and fish stock populations, as well as megafauna, meiofauna and the fish diversity.
Argument 1: Biotic Factors
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the diversity or variety of ecosystems and natural habitats. In essence, it’s the variety of ways that species interact with each other and their environment (National Wildlife Federation). Every ecosystem performs certain functions that are critical for organisms, meaning that habitats, structures and production are reliant on biodiversity (World Ocean Review). Biodiversity is also beneficial to many areas such as tourism, research and food resources, meaning the greater the diversity, the better it can maintain and withstand changes to its habitats or environment (Marine Biodiversity, 2013). Biodiversity remains difficult to quantify accurately, but accuracy is not needed to develop an understanding of how biodiversity has changed over time, the responsibility for change and the consequences of such change to the ecosystem and human wellbeing at both Green Island and Saint Helena Island (Green Facts).
Through the creation of food webs, tables and graphs, it is possible to compare the data collected at both Green Island and Saint Helena Island. As seen in the Appendix 1, Saint Helena has a larger biodiversity of fish species (25 species) than Green Island (13 species) found in 2016 data, food webs and sightings. In appendix 3, 4 and 5, a large amount of fish species and high abundance is seen whereas in appendix 6, (Green Island) there is only a small amount seen. This is due to the fact that Saint Helena Island is a green zone and therefore no fishing, netting, trawling or trapping is allowed (Interpreting Zones). This means that fish species have protection, less damage is done to their habitats, spawning areas are protected, fish are given the opportunity to reproduce and increase abundance and refuge is offered for protected species such as dugongs and turtles (Pandolfi, 2014). Having analysed graphs and tables, it can be seen that the Green Zone is flourishing in fish species and abundance, whereas the non-green zone is depleting. In Appendix 2, if closer looked at, Saint Helena Island shows a greater variety in both common and rarer species. This is due to the fact that the Green Zone has allowed the habitat around Saint Helena Island to expand and allow different species to be introduced, whereas the habitat around Green Island remains the same and there is little food, therefore limiting the surrounding areas to more common fish. This is evidence to suggest that the Green zone is allowing improvement, creating a healthier environment and increasing biodiversity.
As seen in Appendix 7, the Saint Helena Food web has a larger variety of interrelationships on all trophic levels when compared to Green Island’s food web (Appendix 8). Saint Helena has been a no fishing zone since the green zone was implemented in 2009, allowing depleted fish species to replenish and other species relying on them have been able to have an adequate food source. There has also been a ban of dredging, allowing meiofauna to flourish, impacting the smaller fish such as Paradise Whiptail Bream and Striped Cardinal Fish, or more important species such as the ...
This is a preview of the whole essay
As seen in Appendix 7, the Saint Helena Food web has a larger variety of interrelationships on all trophic levels when compared to Green Island’s food web (Appendix 8). Saint Helena has been a no fishing zone since the green zone was implemented in 2009, allowing depleted fish species to replenish and other species relying on them have been able to have an adequate food source. There has also been a ban of dredging, allowing meiofauna to flourish, impacting the smaller fish such as Paradise Whiptail Bream and Striped Cardinal Fish, or more important species such as the Loggerhead Turtle and providing them with an important food source, which also later helps the primary or apex predators. The presence of sharks in the Saint Helena food web shows that there is a thriving food source. Food webs rely on the decomposers and producers, and allowing them to replenish has a positive effect on the rest of the food web. Another positive of having a thriving food web (SH) is that if there was a sudden decrease or disappearance of a species, the effects on the rest of the food web would not be as drastic as if there was a small amount of species (GI). For example, if the Striped Cardinal Fish was taken out of the food web, the only repercussions would be an increase in Ostracod, which would benefit its predators. No real damage would occur to the Cardinal Fish’s predators as there is enough other prey species to feed them. However, if a species suddenly disappeared from the Green Island food web, there would be drastic repercussions as there are a small number of species feeding on a small amount of prey. The Saint Helena food web gives a clear indicator that the marine life is thriving and that there is a variety of food, whereas the Green Island Food Web shows a clear lacking in species and primary consumers. Appendix 7 also shows the meiofauna/ benthic invertebrates that inhabit both Saint Helena and Green Island. As seen in Table 1 and Table 2, which shows a comparison between the meiofauna found in both Saint Helena and Green Island, 9 species of meiofauna were found in Green Island and 7 species were found in Saint Helena Island. Benthic macroinvertebrates are a reliable source to indicate the health of Green and Saint Helena Island as they are exposed to a range of environmental, health and water quality changes (Moreton Bay Regional Council).
Table 1: Species recorded in the Green Island area 2017
Fish Species
* Pink Banded Grub Fish
* Small Mouthed Scad
* Snapper
* Sea Urchin
Plants
* Green Algae
* Seagrass* (not recorded but data recorded elsewhere indicated it has been found in both areas)
Meiofauna
* Gastropods
* Soft Coral Spicule
* Diatom
* Bryozoan
* Foraminifera
* Nematolde
* Bivalve
* Polychaete Worm
* Copepod
Table 2: Species recorded in the Saint Helena Food Web 2017
Fish Species
* Blue Swimmer Crab
* Flower Crab
* Eastern Striped Grunter
* Snapper
* Yellow Finned Leatherjacket
* Tarwhine
* Moses Perch
* Small Mouthed Scad
* Striped Cardinal Fish
* Dusky Leatherjacket
* Plants
* Green and Red Algae
* Seagrass
Meiofauna
* Bivalve
* Sponge Spicule
* Copepod
* Foraminifera
* Radiolaria
* Ostracod
* Diatom
Through the analysis of both Saint Helena Island and Green Island food webs, there is a clear increase in species abundance in the Green Zone than in the non-green zone, although the data collected from 2017 in Green Island may not be reliable as there was less data collected than from Saint Helena Island. This may affect the data reliability due to the environmental factors such as tide, time of day and weather, and factors such as how many fishing boats are nearby, and on the 15/5 multiple fishing boats were seen at Green Island. A final factor which may have caused a decrease in the amount of fish seen at either Green Island or Saint Helena Island is the location of the site around Green and Saint Helena Island, as disturbances from the main land such as fishing boats, pollution and recreational activities. On the other hand, abundance of species may be greater on the east side of either Island as there is less human impact to affect fish species.
Indicator Species
Indicator species are organisms that reflect a specific environmental condition or change in the environment through their presence, absence or abundance (Encyclopedia of Life). They can be used to signal any changes in the environment and may also be used to analyse the health of the Saint Helena Island and Green Island ecosystem, and therefore is useful in supporting the recommendation of extending the current Green Zone at the Moreton Bay Marine Park. To allow closer evaluation, the indicator species chosen is Snapper, and its abundance and average size at both Green Island and Saint Helena Island will be analysed to show the effect of indicator species on the fish stock population of Moreton Bay. Appendix 9 shows the N.Max of snapper in both GI and SH that were seen in the BRUV (baited remoted underwater video), and Appendix 10 shows the average size of the snapper across the sites seen in 2016, and it is clearly seen that in Saint Helena Island the average size of Snapper is larger than the average size of Snapper at Green Island. This may be due to the fact that fish such as the Snapper are affected by size-selective fishing methods, which have applied a “culling” or “cropping off” effect (The Effects on Fish stocks of Fishing/Overfishing and other human activities -- how do opposing theories compare to the "Starvation" theory? , 2015). If size limitations are in place on the fish that can be taken, those who are smaller will have a better chance of escaping the nets or being returned, thus giving a selection pressure for smaller size at age. From the analysis of these two appendixes, it can be seen that the abundance of snapper is higher in the Saint Helena Green Zone when compared to the abundance of snapper at Green Island.
Argument 2: Abiotic Factors
The health of an ecosystem is reliant on many factors, but one of the most prominent is Abiotic Factors including; sediment size and water temperature.
Sediment Life and Sediment Size
In order to indicate the health of both the non-green zone and green zone, it is important to analyse the sediment collected at Saint Helena Island and Green Island. Sediment refers to the particles including sand and other soils, which are deposited on the sides and bottoms of water bodies by watershed erosion, mass wasting events and shoreline erosion (Sediment as an Ecological Function, 2017). Sediment is a very important process in ecosystems, as it provides many nutrients and vitamins vital to the health of ecosystems (Sediment as an Ecological Function, 2017). Sediment also is of importance to particular species in both Saint Helena Island and Green Island and it is also very sensitive to change, particularly from human activities and change in the environment (Batalla, 2016). As seen in Table 3 and Table 4, which show a sediment grab from both Saint Helena and Green Island in 2017, there is a smaller abundance of meiofauna at SH3 than GI3. There is a reason for this difference, as Saint Helena Island was previously mined for limestone and this disrupted the cycle of sediment life. The mining for limestone also had a distinct effect on the size of sediment at Saint Helena Island, and Table 3 shows an observation of about 60% of the sand collected at SH3 being found in the 0.063mm sieve, with a big decrease in percentage as the sieve size got smaller. On the other hand, Green Island had a reasonably constant percentage through its sieve sizes; with 5% of the sediment grab being in the 0.063mm sieve, 5% in the 0.125, and a slight increase to 30% in the 0.500 mm, which then decreased slightly to 20% in the 2.000mm sample as shown in Table 4. More organisms are able to live in larger sediment particle sizes, and a study completed in 2003 showed that as the sediment size decreased, the rates of feeding also decreased, due to the clogging of certain species gills, difficulty of locomotion throughout fine sediment and the clogging of appendages (Donohue, 2003). Having an increase in fine sediment means there is a decrease in the variety of organisms which is seen in Table 3, and a lack of variation in sediment sizes has an effect on the organisms which feed on them and therefore affecting the diversity of Saint Helena Island.
Although Saint Helena Island is a green zone, it can be seen that the abiotic health is much better off in the non-green zone as there is more diversity in meiofauna species. The fact that the sediment is healthier in the non-green zone is not fully due to a green zone being implemented, but due to the impacts of not only the limestone mining, but also the Brisbane floods in 2011 which washed thousands of tonnes of fine sediment and silt from the Brisbane River to Saint Helena Island (McCutcheon, 2011). The silt and fine sediment that was washed into Saint Helena Islands green zone not only caused a large amount of algal bloom, but also contaminated the green zone through toxicants and fertilisers (McCutcheon, 2011). Although this placed a huge threat on the health of Saint Helena Island, through the comparison of Table 3 (2017 SH) and Table 5 (2016 SH) there is a huge increase in the variety of organisms collected. For example, in 2016, small blue plastic spicule was in abundance, along with a few other species such as sponge spicules, radiolarians and diatoms, whereas in 2017, there is a small increase in abundance of meiofauna, meaning that the health of Saint Helena Islands sediment is increasing after the damaging effects of the Brisbane floods and limestone mining, and will continue to improve due to the aid of the Green Zone.
Table 3: Organisms identified in the different sieve sizes at Saint Helena Island 2017
Sieve Size
What was found
% Estimation
0.063
Lots of fine sediment, muddy, behind Mud Island, closer to mouth of river, not much current diatoms,
algae, radialarus, foraminifera
60
0.125
Worm, diatoms ++++, ostrapod
15
0.250
Diatom. Mussel hairs, foraminifera, (also plastic microfibers)
10
0.500
Sponge spicule, diatom, spiral shelled gastropods
6
1.000
Shell Fragments
7
2.000
Shell fragments, coral fragments, bivalve
2
Table 4: Organisms identified in the different sieve sizes at Green Island 2017
Sieve Size
What was found
% Estimation
0.063
Sediment Summary - coarse sand and shells, and some fine sediment polychaete, diatoms ++++, faecal material
5
0.125
ostrapod, diatom, faecal material, snails, soft coral, nematode
5
0.250
dumbell diatom, foraminifera single cells, spicule
15
0.500
worm, shell fragments, gastropods, Bryozoan, tiny bivalve, (microplastic pollution)
30
1.000
coral fragments, shell fragments, spiral shell, bivalves, foraminifera
25
2.000
bivalve, red algae, eroded coral
20
Table 5: Organisms identified in the different sieve sizes at Saint Helena Island 2016
Sieve Size
Organisms observed
0.063
diatoms, radiolarians (protozoa
0.125
0.250
foraminifera, sponge spicule, bivalves, worm faeces
0.500
/
1.000
/
2.000
Bivalves
Water Temperature
The water temperature of Saint Helena Island is also a factor that can greatly impact the health of Moreton Bay, as it can alter the physical and chemical properties of water (Water Temperature, 2016). As seen in Table 6 and 7, the water temperature at Saint Helena Island and Green Island remains quite consistent, with an average of 22.25 degrees at Saint Helena Island and an average of 21.86 degrees at Green Island. An average water temperature for each month was collected, and it shows that in the month of April the average temperature in Brisbane is 25 degrees (Sea Temperatures around Australian Cities, 2016). Through this it is possible to see that the water temperature at both Saint Helena Island and Green Island is at a respectable temperature, and this ensures a healthy ecosystem.
Table 6 and Table 7: Water Temperature Measurements taken at SH and GI
Saint Helena Island
Date
Site
Water Temperature
26/04/2016
SH2A
21.64
27/04/2016
SH2B
21.7
21/04/2016
SH3
23.61
21/04/2016
SH4B
23.58
26/04/2016
SH6
21.45
27/4/2016
SH6
21.5
Green Island
Date
Site
Water Temperature
29/4/2016
GI2
21.93
29/04/2016
GI3
21.84
28/04/2016
GI4
21.83
Recommendation
The analysis of data from Saint Helena Island and Green Island has shown a clear difference between the Green Zone and Non-Green Zone, and this has helped devise a recommendation that will be proposed to the Queensland Government. In order to improve the health of Green Island, it would be most responsible to extend the Green Zone from Saint Helena Island to protect the East half of Green Island. Extending the Green Zone to the East half of Green Island would be more beneficial than extending it to the West side due to human activities and disruption from the mainland, whereas the East side will have less disruption and therefore be able to recover and replenish faster.
Although there will be an implementation of a Green Zone, it does not secure protection for the marine life and habitats, as there is illegal fishing and trawling that has been occurring at Saint Helena Island in the past and present. In order to ensure the protection of both Islands, it would be beneficial to increase the amount of coastguards patrolling, to catch illegal fishing boats. Along with the deliberate illegal fishermen, there are also recreational fishermen including tourists who may not know that Green Island and Saint Helena Islands are Green Zones, so the implementation of a marking system such as buoys to show the fishermen that they are entering a Green zone would be beneficial.
In order for the Green Zone to be most effective, it is also recommended that there is an addition of a no anchoring zone throughout the Green Zone, as anchoring causes damage to seagrass, coral and bottom dwelling animals which are essential to the health of the ecosystem (Frequently Asked Questions , 2017). Without the implementation of the Green zone, the abundance of fish species and the health of the Green Island ecosystem may continue to decrease and cause dramatic repercussions. The extension of the green zone, along with the implementation of the no-anchoring zone would be extremely beneficial for protecting the important habitat, providing refugee for protected species and increasing the abundance of all fish species which would also benefit the food web (What are the benefits of Marine National Parks and Green Zones, 2017). Without the implementation of the Green zone, the abundance of fish species and the health of the Green Island ecosystem may continue to decrease and cause dramatic repercussions.
Conclusion
Through the collection, organisation and analysis of primary and secondary data and the evaluation of fish stock population and both Saint Helena and Green Islands current and past health, extending the current Green Zone is the most justifiable and responsible decision to present to the Queensland Government. The extension of the Green Zone will have a positive effect on Green Island’s species, abundance of species and its ecosystem, meaning that it will be protected from the damaging effects of fishing, and other human activities. Through the recommendation, both the present and future ecosystem will be greatly benefited and overtime, a clear improvement in both Saint Helena Island and Green Island will be observed.
Appendix
SH3
Blackbanded Amberjack
1
Snapper
20
Small Mouth Scad
1
Tarwhine
3
SH2
Snapper
12
x
Blue Catfish
4
Striped Cardinal Fish
5
Paradise Whiptail Bream
8
Tarwhine
9
Yellow Finned Leather Jacket
15
Surf Bream
7
Spotted Wobbegong Shark
1
Cyprus Crayfish
1
SH6
Snapper
5
Blue Catfish
3
Eastern Striped Grunter
65
Sand Crap
1
SH2
Whiptail Bream
6
Yellowtail Pike
1
Snapper
7
Catfish
4
Tarwhine
7
Golden Trevally
4
Toadfish
1
Surf Bream
10
Cardinal Fish
3
SH6
Snapper
5
Paradise Whiptail Bream
3
Blue Catfish
4
Yellow Tailed Pike
1
Eastern Striped Grunter
60
Grey Carpet Shark
1
Sand Crap
2
Wobbegong
1
SH4B
Small mouth scad
7
Black Jewfish
1
Eastern Striped Grunter
1
Longneck eel
1
Leatherjacket
4
Large Scaled grinner
1
Paradise Whiptail Bream
5
Snapper
4
Sand Crab
1
Tarwhine
1
Striped Cardinal Fish
4
Pike eel
1
Amberjack
5
Saint Helena Island
Green Island
Blackbanded Amberjack
Snapper
Snapper
Blue Catfish
Small Mouth Scad
Australian Pied Cormorant
Tarwhine
Pink Banded Grub Fish
Blue Catfish
Dusky Leatherjacket
Paradise Whiptail Bream
Small Mouth Scad
Yellow Finned Leather Jacket
Tarwhine
Surf Bream
Paradise Whiptail Bream
Spotted Wobbegong Shark
Striped Cardinal Fish
Cyprus Crayfish
Eastern Striped Grunter
Sand Crab
Yellowtail Pike
Golden Trevally
Brushtooth Lizardfish
Black Jewfish
Toadfish
Grey Carpet Shark
Longneck Eel
Large Scaled Grinner
Pike Eel
________________
________________
________________
Bibliography
(n.d.).
About Moreton Bay. (2015). Retrieved from Tangalooma Island Resort: https://www.tangalooma.com/moreton-island
Batalla, R. (2016). The importance of sediment and sediment processes for river basin management. Retrieved from Sed Net: http://www.sednet.org/download/WG4_riverbasin.pdf
Cabo Pulmo: A Marine Protected Area enables biodiversity and the local economy to rebound. (2014). Retrieved from Earth Justice: https://ocean.si.edu/sites/default/files/Cabo%20Pulmo%20Earth%20Justice%20Law%20Summary.pdf
Donohue, I. (2003). Effectsofsedimentparticlesizecompositionon survivorshipofbenthicinvertebratesfromLake Tanganyika,Africa. Retrieved from Trinity College; Department of Zoology: http://www.tcd.ie/Zoology/research/research/donohue/Documents/Donohue%20&%20Irvine%20(2003).pdf
Encyclopedia of Life. (n.d.). Retrieved from What is an Indicator Species: http://eol.org/info/465
Frequently Asked Questions . (2017, May 22). Retrieved from Department of National Parks, Sport and Racing: https://www.npsr.qld.gov.au/parks/great-sandy-marine/faq.html#anchoring
Green Facts. (n.d.). Retrieved from Biodiversity and Human Well-Being: http://www.greenfacts.org/en/biodiversity/l-3/1-define-biodiversity.htm
Interpreting Zones. (n.d.). Retrieved from Australian Government: http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/visit-the-reef/zoning/zoning-guide-to-using-the-marine-park/interpreting-zones
Marine Biodiversity. (2013). Retrieved from What is it and why is it so important?: https://ambergriscaye.com/reefbriefs/briefs77.html
(2004). Marine Parks (Moreton Bay) Zoning Plan 2008. Brisbane: Queensland Government .
McCutcheon, P. (2011, January 27). Scientists assess flood impact to Moreton Bay. Retrieved from ABC: http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2011/s3123478.htm
Moreton Bay Regional Council. (n.d.). Retrieved from Benthic Macroinvertebrates : https://www.moretonbay.qld.gov.au/general.aspx?id=91716&libID=97652
National Wildlife Federation. (n.d.). Retrieved from What is Biodiversity?: http://www.nwf.org/Wildlife/Wildlife-Conservation/Biodiversity.aspx
Pandolfi, J. (2014). The.conversation. Retrieved from Study vindicates the benefits of no-fishing zones on the Great Barrier Reef: http://theconversation.com/study-vindicates-the-benefits-of-no-fishing-zones-on-the-great-barrier-reef-39366
Sea Temperatures around Australian Cities. (2016). Retrieved from Living in Australia: https://www.livingin-australia.com/sea-temperatures-australia/
Sediment as an Ecological Function. (2017). Retrieved from King Country: http://www.kingcounty.gov/services/environment/water-and-land/shorelines/about/shoreline-ecology/sediment.aspx
The Effects on Fish stocks of Fishing/Overfishing and other human activities -- how do opposing theories compare to the "Starvation" theory? . (2015). Retrieved from http://www.fisherycrisis.com/fishingq.html
Water Temperature. (2016). Retrieved from Fundamentals of Environmental Measurements: http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/water-temperature/#watertemp1
What are the benefits of Marine National Parks and Green Zones. (2017). Retrieved from Queensland Government: http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/zoning-permits-and-plans/zoning/about-zoning
Why marine reserves are important. (2015, August 25). Retrieved from Queensland Government: https://www.npsr.qld.gov.au/parks/moreton-bay/zoning/information-sheets/why_marine_reserves_are_important.html
Winton, T. (2017). Marine Parks. Retrieved from Australian Marine Conservation Society: https://www.marineconservation.org.au/pages/marine-parks.html
Winton, T. (2017). Moreton Bay Marine Park. Retrieved from Marine Conservation: https://www.marineconservation.org.au/pages/moreton-bay-marine-park.html
World Ocean Review. (n.d.). Retrieved from Marine Biodiversity: http://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-1/marine-ecosystem/biodiversity/
Zoning, Permits and Plans. (2016). Retrieved from Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority: http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/zoning-permits-and-plans/zoning/about-zoning
