Learning Theory
Learning Theory Abstract Psychologists have proposed many different theories to explain how we learn. Behaviourists insist on a scientific, controlled approach where each behaviour is seen as a response to a stimulus. The behaviour modification techniques that have appeared most effective in the special education setting are mainly positive reinforcement and contingency management (Ross and Braden 1991). Teachers should attempt to ensure that they provide frequent but variable ratio reinforcement for appropriate behaviour (Weiten, 2004) and that inappropriate behaviour is denied reinforcement by means of time out or other contingency management. As students vary in their learning styles, teachers may need to identify different techniques to be effective for individual students. When an individual demonstrates a lasting change in behaviour, as a result of experience, this is called learning (Laird, 1992; Myers, 2004). Different theories have been proposed in the attempt to explain how learning occurs. The behaviourist school of psychologists insist on a scientific, controlled approach, where each behaviour is seen as a response to a stimulus. According to these theories, we may increase the frequency of a particular behaviour either because it is being triggered by a stimulus that frequently had been associated in time with another stimulus that would more normally have
What are the requirements for a Functionalist theory of Language Development?
What are the requirements for a Functionalist theory of Language Development? Most theories of language development have considered the matter from one of two broad viewpoints - behaviourist (language is learnt by imitation, e.g. Skinner), or innatist (particularly Chomsky, who believes that we are born with the necessary cognitive 'equipment' to learn language). However, these theories are not truly complete accounts of language development because they only begin to study from the first appearance of words and syntax; none considers how the child gets to this stage. This is where functionalist theories attempt to redress the balance; by concentrating on the functions, or uses, of language, they hope to understand why and how a child begins to use language. For such a theory to be valid, language development must meet certain requirements. The functions of language first need some qualification. Halliday (1975) separates the child's utterances with two principal functions: mathematic, when language is used to learn about the environment and language itself (marked by falling intonation), and pragmatic, when language is used to satisfy the child's needs and to interact with others (marked by rising intonation). He goes on to describe in more detail the initial functions that language serves in interactions: instrumental (the child's demand for objects), regulatory (the
Jean Piaget's Theory of Development
Jean Piaget's Theory of Development Jean Piaget was born just before the turn of the century in Neuchâtel, Switzerland in 1896 and died in Geneva in 1980 at the age of 85. During high school, at the very young age of 11, Piaget completed his first important scientific work, a short paper about albino sparrows. This was the beginning of a brilliant scientific career made of more than 60 books and several hundred articles. In 1923, Piaget and Valentine Châtenay were married. They had three children together: Jacqueline, Lucienne, and Laurent, whose intellectual development from infancy to language was studied by Piaget (http://www.piaget.org). How does knowledge grow? Piaget spent his life searching for the answer to this very question. His research in developmental psychology and genetic epistemology was directed at elaborating upon a theory of knowledge about cognitive development in children also known as genetic epistemology (Driscoll, 1994). His answer is that the growth of knowledge is a progressive construction of logically embedded structures superseding one another by a process of inclusion of lower, less powerful logical means into higher and more powerful ones up to adulthood. Therefore, children's logic and modes of thinking are initially entirely different from those of adults (http://www.piaget.org). Piaget referred to his view as "constructivism," because he
'Describe the major phenomena of learning that are common to both Classical and Instrumental conditioning'.
'Describe the major phenomena of learning that are common to both Classical and Instrumental conditioning' Behaviourists believe that although we are born with certain in-built reflexes and mechanisms, the majority of our behaviour is learnt through interaction with our environment. They believe all examples of behaviour can be explained by the stimulus-response approach, the stimulus being defined as any event which has an effect on an organism, and the response as a physiological reaction or act (Lang & Teahan 2001). There are two main behaviourist approaches, classical (respondent), and instrumental (operant) conditioning. Both of these approaches are types of associative learning, where we learn through the consequences of our behaviour. Classical conditioning is learning through associations, it works on reflexes that are already present. It was first described in detail in 1972 by the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov was investigating the salivatory reflex in dogs, a response that is automatic when food is placed in the animal's mouth. Pavlov however soon realised that the dogs were producing the salivating response before the food was presented. The salivatory reflex was being set of by other stimuli such as the sight of the food, or seeing the person who regularly fed them (Cardwell et al 2001). This led Pavlov to begin to formulate the principle of
Describe and Evaluate Research that Highlights Factors Involved in the Development of Dissociative Experiences.
Describe and Evaluate Research that Highlights Factors Involved in the Development of Dissociative Experiences. Dissociation is defined as "A structured separation of mental processes (eg thoughts, emotions, conation, memory and identity) that are ordinarily integrated" (speigel & Cardena, 1991). The capacity for dissociation seems to develop as a normal psychological process for imaginative ability and fantasy, but in many cases this dissociative capacity can be employed as a psychological coping mechanism. To this end it has been recognised that dissociation cannot be described as a singular phenomenon. Rather, there may exist a continuum of dissociative experiences, ranging from common, 'normative' episodes (such as daydreaming) to more severe pathological manifestations (eg dissociative identity disorder) and processes (Ross, 1996). It has also been widely accepted since the work of Janet (1889), and since backed up by much empirical research, that high levels of dissociative experiences in an individual often closely relate to a history of trauma (especially during childhood). Despite all of this interest and research into the existence of dissociative experiences and tendencies, many of the factors that are believed to develop into, and mediate them have received scant empirical scrutiny (Irwin, 1998). Thus in order to try and understand the factors involved in the
"Theory affects the work of practitioners in the area of loss to varying degrees
"Theory affects the work of practitioners in the area of loss to varying degrees. Some are quite ignorant of theory and work almost exclusively from personal instinct and experience; others find that theory guides significantly their approach to dealing with loss, attitudes towards those for whom they care, communication with other practitioners, and the interventions employed in situations of loss. Different theoretical positions that have evolved throughout the 20th century have contributed positively to the knowledge and work of practitioners in the area of loss. However, while recognizing potential benefits provided by theory, it is important to also recognize the potential negative effects of strict adherence to a particular theoretical position in this work in the area of loss. Hence it may be the use of theory, rather than theory alone, that we must consider more carefully in improving the care of those facing loss". Throughout the 20th century theoretical models of loss and grief have been based predominantly on bereavement (Murray, 2003). However, studies have found that the personal experience of bereavement does not always follow the precepts of theoretical models (Silverman & Klass, 1996). Furthermore, "in the field of death and dying, loss is the central topic" (Harvey & Weber, 1998, p.321) and loss and grief has also been associated with a broad range of
Compare, contrast and evaluate the Biological perspective and the Behavioral perspective of psychology.
Compare, contrast and evaluate the Biological perspective and the Behavioral perspective of psychology. Psychology is a broad discipline and as such has seen an ever increasing number of fields of study grow within it. Psychoanalytic, cognitive and humanistic existential perspectives are just a few examples of differing core methods of approach and emphasis when applied to fundamental psychological issues. These differing approaches allow problems to be examined in a variety of ways by psychologists. Whilst it is quite common now to combine these metatheories in order to approach psychological issues (the biopsychosocial perspective or the sociocultural model, for example) the overarching framework of the broader perspectives still underpins these methodologies and ways of thinking. Two key metatheories which exist within the field of psychology are the Biological perspective and the Behavioural perspective. Whilst both of these approaches attempt to answer the same essential questions that exist throughout psychology they are fundamentally different in their delivery and methodology (although some similarities do exist). A brief example could posit that someone operating within the emphasis of the biological perspective would look at brain function and the role of the central nervous system in order to find how they affect a subject in terms of their emotional response to
To what extent can cognitive development be understood in terms of the specialisation of function in specific structures of the brain?
Module: ED209 Child Development Personal Identifier: B6263069 TMA 5: To what extent can cognitive development be understood in terms of the specialisation of function in specific structures of the brain? Word Count: 2158 To what extent can cognitive development be understood in terms of the specialisation of function in specific structures of the brain? The development of the human brain is analogous to that observed in other mammals. However, distinctively the human brain has a prolonged period of postnatal development. During this extended period of postnatal brain development the brain is still undergoing major structural changes and is also subject to the influences of rich environmental experiences. In the time from birth to adulthood the brain increases in volume four times. This is caused by a number of sources but notably by neural development. In the initial phase of postnatal neural development the number of neurons and connections (synapses) increases dramatically in both size and complexity. Huttenlocher (1990) found from the time of birth there was an increase in the generation of synapses in several regions of the cerebral cortex. In the first year these peak and young infants have around fifty per cent more synapses than adults, before they start to decrease. In the prefrontal cortex this peak happens at around 24 months. This decrease, or pruning,
Why is play with siblings and peers important for childrens development
Module: ED209 Child Development Personal Identifier: B6263069 TMA 3: Why is play with siblings and peers important for children's development? Word Count: 2157 Why is play with siblings and peers important for children's development? It has long been recognised by numerous developmental psychologists that children's first relationships and experiences have a significant effect on development. Research by Bowlby and others on attachment has shown the importance and implications of early relationships and interactions with caregivers; the effect these have on development both in children and in later adult life. Harris (1998) and Pinker (2002) have argued that the influence parents have in children's social development has been largely exaggerated and that socialization occurs within peer group interactions. As infants mature they interact with a diverse range of people, engaging and sustaining varied relations including those with other children. These varied interactions provide unique experiences and each has developmental significance. Exploring the significance of children's relationships and interactions with other children, most notably with their siblings and peer groups has become in itself a developmental topic. The focus on this topic involves examining how children learn the skills to deal with the complexity of social life. How through their
How has Bowlbys original formulation of attachment theory been taken up by subsequent research?
ED209 Child Development TMA 03 Option 2 How has Bowlby’s original formulation of attachment theory been taken up by subsequent research? Attachment theory is a field that has received a considerable amount of attention since the 1950s. This essay will briefly describe the original theory as introduced by Bowlby, providing an overview of his key influences, and then consider in more detail how this theory has been developed and expanded by researchers such as Ainsworth and Main and Goldwyn using a variety of methods. Bowlby is a key figure in the investigation of parent-child relationships and the development of attachment theory. His interest in this field was in part ignited by an awareness of ethological research concerning animal imprinting. In particular, the work of Lorenz, who discovered that by being the first moving object that infant greylag geese came into contact with during the early stages after their hatching – a period he termed the ‘critical period’ – he could fulfil the role of their ‘mother’ (Oates, Lewis & Lamb, 2005). The young geese would follow Lorenz and show an attachment to him as one would expect they would to their mother. For humans, an attachment can be defined as a strong emotional bond between an infant and their caregiver which provides the infant with emotional security (Oates et al., 2005). From an