Psychological research on identity has used both an 'insider viewpoint' and an 'outsider viewpoint'.
Psychological research on identity has used both an 'insider viewpoint' and an 'outsider viewpoint'. This essay aims to explore two theories of identity, in particular how insider and outsider viewpoints have been used while researching these theories. A short discussion of what identity means is followed by an explanation of what insider and outsider viewpoints are. This distinction is then illustrated using two different identity theories and the studies that were used in their research. Identity is a broad concept, therefore several theories have been proposed for different aspects of identities. Many types of research have been used to explore the topic - the aim being formation of theories that explain what identities are, and how they form (Phoenix, 2002). To understand how this research into identity has made use of both insider and outsider viewpoints, it is important to be clear on what these terms mean. An insider viewpoint is subjective, and focuses on the experiences of particular individuals. This could include a person's emotions, beliefs, reasons and motives. Therefore the data generated from research taking an insider viewpoint usually falls into the category of 'inner experiences'. To gain access to these experiences, the individual concerned must be able to explain them to the researcher and put them into words - interviews and questionnaires are
Conformity experiments
Conformity Conformity is defined by Zimbardo (1992) as, 'A tendency for people to adopt behaviour, values and attitudes of other members of a reference group.' Mann (1969) identified the two major types of conformity: normative conformity and informational conformity. Normative conformity is caused by a desire to liked. People conform because they think that other members of their reference group will like and accept them. They also want to avoid embarrassment and humiliation from other group members. It is a desire to right that forms the basis of informational conformity; people conform because they look to others whom they believe to be correct to give them information. In 1951, Asch conducted an experiment into conformity. Previous studies into conformity, such as Sherif's 1935 study using auto-kinetic effect, were based on ambiguous tasks, where there was no obvious answer. Asch believed that if the answer was made obvious, there could be no doubt that the subject was conforming if he followed the answers of the rest of the group. In the experiment, a pair of card where shown to people sitting around the table. The first card had a line on it, and the second card had three lines, of varying length. The participants were asked which of the lines on the second card matched the line on the first card in length, and gave their answer in front of the rest of the group.
Zimbardo's Prison study: Do the ends justify the means?
Zimbardo's Prison study: Do the ends justify the means? Zimbardo believed that his 'prison study' justified the means. According to him, his participants didn't show any long-term negative effects. Over the years he had been constructing a report on his participants to see whether there were any negative effects but discovered that they hadn't been affected. He mentions that the participants led normal lifestyles and didn't have re-occurring memories about the prison experience and in fact had learnt that social influence can have an effect on anyone Throughout the short history of psychology one of the most major transformations that have taken place is in regard to what we believe is ethical or not in the experimentation process. E.g. the study by Milgram about obedience is extremely unethical but its still to this day an important part of research, the same applies to the Prison Study by Zimbardo. You wouldn't be permitted to imitate any research of that sort in this present day. In addition you have to be aware that it isn't just how the Participants are treated that make a study unethical but as well as the wider ethical implication of the research. For example Gould's study tells us that the results that Yerkes collected were used to support racist views, restraining immigration policies and even the eugenics movement. The ethical guidelines lay down by the BPS
Classical Conditioning and Response.
Experimental Report: Classical Conditioning and Response Experimental Report: Conditioning and Response The alarm sounds, you get up, you take a shower, you eat your breakfast, and you drive off to work or school. Sound familiar? Repeating patterns are found in the lifestyles of every living human. Although it doesn't require much thought to get up when your alarm sounds in the morning, you still need to process the information of the sound ringing and interpret this as a sign to wake up. Instead of hearing your alarm and getting confused on what to do next, you have conditioned yourself to respond a certain way depending on the situation. This repetition of patterns and the proper response is known as classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is a major phenomenon which has been the topic of experimental procedures for several decades. From animals, to babies, to adults, conditioning has been shown to be evident in several forms of life. Although there are several types of classical conditioning, this experimental report focuses mainly on the phenomenon of extinction. The main focus of extinction is how one is conditioned to respond distinctly to a certain indicator, but then the associated response diminishes over time as the certain indicator is removed (Nairne, 245). METHOD Participants: The participant was a college undergraduate over the age of 18;
Construction of a questionnaire to measure
Construction of a questionnaire to measure the personality characteristic openness to experience, in relation to the job of a probation officer. Abstract Questionnaire constructed to measure the personality characteristic openness, as defined by Costa & McCrae (1977), to aid an occupational psychologist screening applicants for the job of a Probation Officer. Questionnaire consisted of 30 statements, with responses indicted on a 5 point likert scale. 50 Participants selected using an opportunity sample from the University of Teesside. 15 of the 50 were re-tested, and completed Goldberg's (1990) openness questionnaire. Reliability was tested for, using Cronbach's Alpha, giving a value of 0.8212 for the final scale at the 0.8 level. The test-retest reliability correlation coefficient was 0.93, and the concurrent validity was not significant at the 0.75 level, with a value of 0.541. The factor analysis suggested that the questionnaire had one underlying factor, which was interpreted as 'Openness'. Introduction The job that has been chosen by the researchers is a Probation Officer. The job entails working with offenders to decrease their chance of re-offending; protecting the public against criminal offences; to assist in community punishments; making offenders aware of the effects the crime committed has on others; and rehabilitating offenders. The personality
When carrying out experimental research, one of the most important factors that psychologists have to consider is what variables need to be controlled and how that control is to be achieved.
-When carrying out experimental research, one of the most important factors that psychologists have to consider is what variables need to be controlled and how that control is to be achieved. The study that I have chosen is Loftus and Palmer. Their experiment was on eyewitness testimony, and how reliable our memories really are. Controls used within this experiment were to prevent extraneous variables, as like in most experimental research. Some of the controls that were accounted for were that the participants all viewed the same video, this was to ensure that all participants were given a fair chance, and they were all answering questions on the same piece of material shown to each participant. Another control was the location of the experiment. All participants were in the same environment/location (lab experiment), which meant that extraneous variables could not affect the experiment and give other participants an advantage over others. All questions asked were the same (excluding the verb). As the question was kept the same it meant that some of the participants would not be asked leading questions or closed answer questions, which could in turn effect the results drastically. A control group was also used. This was in the second part of the experimental research. There were 150 students, who were shown a video and later were all asked questions, all but 50 students
Existence of a Particular Pool of Resources to Process Numeric Information
Existence of a Particular Pool of Resources to Process Numeric Information Clive H.Y. Wong (UID:03502017) DSE212 - Exploring Psychology Abstract Information processing power of human brain had been found to be limited (Kahneman, 1973, Simons and Levin, 1998, cited by Edgar 2002). Some researches tried to show the human brain was work as a single limited-capacity central processor (Posner and Boies, 1971, cited by Edgar 2002) while further researches found that human brain consisted of different pool of resources to handle different incoming information (McLeod, 1977, cited by Edgar 2002). In this research, the dual-task method (McLeod, 1977, Posner and Boies, 1971, cited by Edgar 2002) had been adapted to further explore the concept by injecting similar stimulus, expecting to consume the same pool of resources which handled numbers. Experiment contained two stimuli, visual and auditory, both numeric in one condition and numeric versus color in another condition. It was expected the participants take longest time to complete tasks both numeric, which was expected to be consuming the same pool of resources. Result was failed to conform to the experimental hypothesis, but the experiment is evaluated and refinement on the methodology is discussed. Introduction (Provided) Method Design A between-participants design was employed in this experiment. The independent variable
Essay Questions Concerning Deception in Stanley Milgram Research.
Essay Questions Concerning Deception in Stanley Milgram Research a) Deception was a key feature in the procedure of Milgram's study on obedience. A fundamental deception that was conducted was the fact that none of the participants were made aware that the study was about obedience. The participants were told that the study concerned learning and memory. Another deception that took place was the fact that all the participants were led to believe that the 'learner' was also a voluntary participant, and they believed they had a 50:50 chance between them of selecting the role of 'teacher' or 'learner'. In fact the 'learner' was an actor and the situation was set up so that the real participant would always become 'teacher'. One of the major deceptions in this study was that concerning the electric shocks. The participants believed they were administering increasingly higher electric shocks to the 'learner' in response to wrong or unanswered questions. However at no point during the study was an electric shock administered to the 'learner', all responses were on audio tape and the 'learner' was perfectly safe. b) Deception in Milgram's study gave cause for critism as it led to the breaking of other ethical guidelines. Firstly the participants were unable to give informed consent. This is a major ethical guideline, as experimenters should obtain informed consent
Experiment in cognition.
Running head: EXPERIMENT IN COGNITION Experiment in Cognition Eleasha M. Miller University of North Texas Abstract This experiment was conducted to further the previous research of Smith, Ward, and Schumacher (1993) and Marsh, Landau, and Hicks (1996) on the standard conformity effect. Participants in the experimental group were shown examples of three creatures that shared features converging on the single concept of hostility, while participants were not shown ay examples. Consistent with previous research, the experimental group participants' novel creations conformed to the examples they were shown even with specific instructions to not copy any aspect of the examples. Additionally, participants in the experimental group used more hostile features when creating novel creatures than the participants in the control group who were not shown examples. These results suggest that outside influences can unintentionally have profound effects on creativity and originality. Experiment in Cognition One facet of creativity research explores how memory contributes to the products of creativity (e.g. drawings, inventions, songs, etc.). A standard finding is that people tend to incorporate elements of recently experienced stimuli in creative products. More specifically, Smith, Ward, and Schumacher (1993) and Marsh, Landau, and Hicks (1996) have shown the standard conformity
Personality and Stress
Outline and evaluate research (theories and/or studies) into the way personality and/or gender modify the effects of stressors. The question of individual differences in vulnerability to stress is as interesting as the effects of stress itself. In every study, participants experiencing apparently similar levels of stress can show very different outcomes: some show psychological or physical disorders, while some get on well with few obvious effects. Of course, some of these differences are rooted in physiology, but the main interest has been in psychological factors influencing our response to stressors, such as personality types. There have been numerous studies coming up with the conclusion that people with intensive stressful life events are more likely to suffer from cardiovascular disorders such as Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) and Hypertension. Friedman and Rosenman (1974) studied the behaviour of patients suffering from CHD, and proposed that a particular behaviour pattern was associated with increased vulnerability to this stress-related illness. This behaviour pattern is characterised by constant time-pressure, doing several tasks at once, being intensely competitive in work and social situations, and being easily hostile to others. This has been known as the Type A personality. Type B, on the opposite, is the relaxed and carefree personality. The aim of the study