An Investigation into Perceptual Set.
An Investigation into Perceptual Set. Emily Collins Centre number: 1409 Candidate number: 8146 Abstract I conducted an experiment to investigate the theory of perceptual set which is an aspect of the top down theory of perception. I based this experiment on a similar one conducted by Bruner and Minturn in 1955 who tried to demonstrate that immediate visual and environmental context can effect perception of an ambiguous figure. Their results proved this to be the case and this experiment is used to support the theory of perceptual set. In my version of this experiment, I hoped to produce similar results to prove that previous environmental stimuli have an affect on the perception of following visual data. The hypothesis of this experiment was: The immediate physical context will directly affect the way in which later data is perceived. I used an experiment as my research method, as considering the topic of this investigation it would be the most apt, and would allow me to obtain results easier. There was also little way in which I could investigate this topic using a case study method. I also felt that the matched pairs design would be the most appropriate as it prevented extraneous variables becoming a problem, such as gender and age. I used opportunity sampling as my sampling method, as it was the quickest and easiest option. The sample used was 20 girls ages 16-17
The general psychological subject area of this study is social influence.
The general psychological subject area of this study is social influence. This can be defined as "the process by which an individual's attitudes, beliefs or behaviours are modified by the presence or actions of others" (Saks & Krupat 1988). There are several types of social influence but this piece of research will be investigating conformity in particular and, more specifically, gender. Conformity is referred to as "a change in behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure" (David Myers 1999). Research into conformity dates as far back as 350 B.C. with Aristotle's writings on social influences and persuasion. However, experimental studies did not begin until the twentieth century with Floyd Allport (1924). Participants were required to judge the pleasantness of a set of odours, alone and then in small groups. Allport found that their judgements after the group discussion, approached the mean of their group and concluded that they conformed in attempt to be accepted by the others. A study similar to that of Allport's and the basis for this research is that of Jenness' (1932). Individual students were asked to estimate the number of beans in a bottle and then later placed in groups to discuss and come to a group conclusion. Jenness observed that when asked for a second judgement, participants made a distinct shift towards the group estimate.
Do Milgram's experiment's tell us anything about why people obey authority outside the laboratory?
Do Milgram's experiment's tell us anything about why people obey authority outside the laboratory? In a post-holocaust world, Stanley Milgram, an American psychologist, deliberated with disbelief on the atrocities that the Nazis had committed during their time in power. Being Jewish himself the issue was particularly close to heart and he questioned what it was that had driven the Nazis to commit such crimes. The theory that 'Germans are different' and that they were a particularly obedient and cruel race was a popular idea at the time when Milgram was growing up, so Milgram attempted to test this hypothesis using psychological research. The 'Germans are different' hypothesis stated that the Germans were lacking certain personality characteristics such as care for others and possessed, instead, a character that unquestioningly followed orders. These character flaws were then exploited by Hitler to pursue his own ends, the systematic extermination of millions of Europeans; whether they are Jewish, Polish, Gypsies, homosexual or even German. In pursuing this line of investigation Milgram tried to establish whether or not obedience to authority was particularly high in certain societies. He hoped the findings of his research would aid his understanding as to why thousands co-operated with the mass extermination that could only have been possible with the support of the
Exploring the Existence And Influence of Gender Stereotyping on behaviour and decision-making through a Vignette Study.
Exploring the Existence And Influence of Gender Stereotyping on behaviour and decision-making through a Vignette Study. Abstract. Knowledge is organised in the brain in schemas, which aids fast processing of information, but can also lead to stereotyping and distortions of new information, as the brain tries to categorise new information. To explore these stereotypes (specifically gender) and how they affect behaviour, participants were presented with a short paragraph describing either a male or female giving directions, and asked how much further they would drive. The results showed that participants would drive further when a female had directed them. This suggests that gender stereotypes do exist and that they are a strong subconscious influence on our behaviour. Method Design. The experiment was a between-participants design, as a within-design would have allowed the participants to see the difference in the conditions and therefore work out the point of the experiment. The Independent Variable (IV) was the sex of the direction-giver in the vignette, so half of participants answered condition 1 where the direction-giver was female, and the other half answered condition 2 where the direction-giver was male. The Dependent Variable (DV) was the number of miles the participant would continue to drive after reading the vignette, if they were the driver. Participants
To what extent do the 'ends' justify the 'means' in ethically objectionable experiments such as Milgram's study of obedience?
To what extent do the 'ends' justify the 'means' in ethically objectionable experiments such as Milgram's study of obedience? Milgram's study of Obedience - the study of how people react to social situations which involve complying with instructions from a figure of authority (Glassman & Hadad 2004) was designed to answer the question of whether a person would follow orders to cause harm to an innocent human being (Milgram 2005). Milgram's study has received both criticism and praise since it was carried out in 1963 (Nissani 1990). Criticisms of the study have lingered since the results regarding ethical issues and the emotional harm participants experienced (Baumrind 1964). This essay will discuss the ethical implications of Milgram's experiment and argue that the results of Milgram's experiment justify the levels of stress participants faced during his study. Milgram's experiment will be explained, followed by ethical guidelines which should have been adhered to. This essay will also discuss criticisms of the study and the emotional strain that was placed upon participants, the possible limitations of the design of Milgram's study will also be put forward. The results of Milgram's experiment will be presented followed by a discussion regarding the contribution that Milgram's study made to the understanding of human behaviour. Milgram's study put volunteers into a
AN INVESTIGATION TO EXPERIMENT THE EFFECT RETROACTIVE INTERFERANCE HAS ON THE WAY WE RECALL INFORMATION.
AN INVESTIGATION TO EXPERIMENT THE EFFECT RETROACTIVE INTERFERANCE HAS ON THE WAY WE RECALL INFORMATION. INTRODUCTION The role that memory plays in our everyday lives cannot be underestimated. Many of our memories aren't permanent - we forget things. We forget where we put our notebooks, we forget telephone numbers. The way we recall information is based on many different factors. The basic assumption on interference as a reason for forgetting is that our memory traces are disrupted or obscured by the other information, in other words forgetting occurs because of interference from other memories (Baddeley, 1999). One of the two ways in which interference can cause forgetting is by retroactive interference. Retroactive interference is when subsequent learning interferes with what we have learned. In other words, later learning interferes with earlier learning when what is being learnt later is similarly related. Numerous studies have reliably demonstrated retroactive interference. The basic methods for testing proactive interference are shown in the table below: Retroactive Interference Experimental group Control group Phase 1 Learn A Learn A Phase 2 Learn B Rest or unrelated task Phase 3 Recall A Recall A
Theories of Personality. Hans Eysenck: The Factor Theory
Factor Theory Running Header: Hans Eysenck: The Factor Theory Hans Eysenck: The Factor Theory Grace Roman Park University Claude Andrews PS 315 Theories of Personality February 29, 2012 Abstract Hans Eysenck, known for his defiant and reluctant views against the already grounded norms, and the most cited psychologist of all time with more than 70 published books, proposed ones that our behavior is little affected by our environment, and rather genetics. Introducing introverted and extroverted behavior along with neurotic bias to the world of psychology, he would end up creating a rather extensive test, the Eysenck’s Psychological Questionnaire, also known in the work of psychology as the EPQ which aids one as an individual to figure themselves out, and get to know the nature of their behaviors. In this paper we look a little bit of the history of Hans, his theory, hypothesis and how it does compare to other scientists like Ivan Pavlov, Carl Jung to mention a few and how it related to many of our lives, in this case, mine. ________________ Hans Eysenck: The Factor Theory Hans Eysenck was born in Berlin on 1926 to Ruth Werner, a starlet at the time of Hans’s birth who later on became a German silent film star, and Anton Eduard Eysenck, an actor, singer and comedian. His parents divorced when he was 4 years of age, and it was then when he went to live with
The relationship between extraversion and introversion arousal levels experiment
________________ The relationship Between Extraversion-Introversion and the EEG ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Abstract The aim of the study was to test Eysenck’s (1967) personality theory which states that extraverts are less aroused than introverts. Participants completed Eysenck’s personality questionnaire which indicated high and low extraversion. The data set consisted of 83 males & female undergraduate Psychology students from Magee University of Ulster. Participants were instructed to open and close their eyes and perform a mental arithmetic calculation on instruction whilst the EEG recorded alpha wave amplitude and frequency activity from three mean amplitude of the alpha wave between participants who scored high on extroversion (M = 9.88, SD=6.18) and participants who scored low on extroversion (M = 11.08, SD = 6.55). There was no significant difference in high arousal conditions that is when eyes were closed (M = 10.98, SD = 8.67) and when eyes were open (M = 8.79, SD = 6.36) and finally there was no significant difference in the mean alpha wave amplitude while performing a mental arithmetic task between participants who scored high (M = 6.63, SD = 6.75) and participants who scored low in extraversion (M = 7.03, SD = 6.41). . Introduction According to Sissen & Ellingson as cited by ( ) no study has been convincingly demonstrated to show a relationship
Fundamentals of Research Methodology. This paper will cover briefly the science of psychology, discuss scientific method, define qualitative, and quantitative data, and cover scientific theory construction, and testing.
FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Fundamentals of Research Methodology Pamela M Jeans PSYCH540 November 25, 2012 Jeanne Henry, Ph.D. ________________ Fundamentals of Research Methodology The fundamentals of research involves the scientist asking a question, designing an experiment that will collect the data, analyzing results, reaching conclusions, and sharing the findings with fellow researchers, clinicians, and society. This process helps us understand why people think, how they feel, and act in the ways that we do as well as what causes these reactions. Psychologists seek to understand behavior and mental processes by developing these theories and conducting their research. This paper will cover briefly the science of psychology, discuss scientific method, define qualitative, and quantitative data, and cover scientific theory construction, and testing. Science of Psychology When one thinks of science the first images that come to mind are a textbook filled with scientific formulas, a scientist in lab jackets, microscopes, beakers, and mice. “Science is a process of discovery that allows us to link isolated facts into coherent and comprehensive understandings of the natural world” (University of California Museum of Paleontology, 2012, p.1). This process of discovery is applied by psychologists, “when they develop theories and conduct research to
Investigating The Level Of Risk In Decisions Made By Individuals Vs. Groups
Investigating The Level Of Risk In Decisions Made By Individuals Vs. Groups Introduction BACKGROUND RESEARCH Area of Study: Social Psychology People behave differently when in a group or by themselves. People are attracted to being in groups because members have roughly similar views. When we are in a group, social influence processes occur. Conformity is a day-to-day phenomenon - a change in behaviour or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure (Kiesler and Kiesler, 1969). Stoner conducted a study in 1961 to compare the level of riskiness of decisions made by groups and by individuals. Participants had to choose between two alternatives in several dilemmas - one more risky (but with a more favourable outcome) than the other. His experiment was of a repeated measures design. His participants first answered the questionnaire individually, then as groups, then again as individuals for the third and final time. Some participants answered the questionnaire twice only as individuals for control. Stoner discovered that on average, groups tended to be riskier. Practical consequences of this include decisions made by committees, boards, and the jury. Other studies supported his finding of the "risky shift", but contradictions were also found - the shift was not always towards the risky end of the spectrum. At times group discussions lead to an even more cautious