What do the Ways in which human Beings can become 'Self Conscious' Tell Us About the Nature of Selfhood?
What do the Ways in which human Beings can become 'Self Conscious' Tell Us About the Nature of Selfhood? Tangney and Miller (1996) say that self-conscious emotions such as shame, embarrassment and guilt "involve a heightened sense of awareness and evaluation of the self". They move on to suggest that as well as being self-conscious, they should also be considered 'other-conscious', as they often involve the feeling of exposure and a 'heightened concern for others' judgements of the self'. If this is true, it suggests that the nature of selfhood may be directly linked to social interactions. Before this can be explored, however, it is important to understand the meaning of the term 'self-conscious'. In this context when we say self-conscious we mean (as Tangney and Miller suggested) any situation in which a person is brought to be more aware of themselves. Examples of this include Shame, Guilt, Embarrassment and Pride. In each of these emotions, the subject is lead to consider their own actions or even their own identity in response to a violation of social norms or moral beliefs. Historically there has been some argument over whether such emotions (especially Shame, Guilt and Embarrassment) can be considered distinct or if they are merely affective aspects of one larger emotional response. What has now been broadly recognised is that although similar, they are structurally
When and why do we rely on stereotypes?
When and why do we rely on stereotypes? Stereotyping has been a great topic of debate since the beginning of the 21st century with numerous experiments conducted in order to discover the underlying causes, motivations and situations under which they occur. As well as building an intricate and wide-ranging answer to these questions, the results have shown that it would prove difficult to generate a singular explanation as to why or when stereotypes are used owing to the many possible reasons and different circumstances in which they can be utilized (Hilton and Von Hippel 1996). It is for this reason that they have been described as overdetermined, as they are affected and governed by many underlying processes and influential factors (Mackie, Hamilton, Susskind, and Rosselli, 1996). Despite this, overall definitions have been produced, such as that by Lippmann (1922, as cited in Stangor and Schaller) stating that they are "pictures in our heads" that we use to form opinions on people. Hilton and Von Hippel (1996) defined a stereotype as a highly simplified and widely held generalization of a particular group and Allport (1954, as cited in Mackie, et al.) emphasized the role of categorization in stereotyping. Stereotypes are not always produced as a result of defective thinking or even always negative as they are simply expectations we have as a result of our own experiences or
A Discussion of the Foremost Factors influencing Efficacy of Punishment and its Success in Animal, Children and Criminal Studies.
A Discussion of the Foremost Factors influencing Efficacy of Punishment and its Success in Animal, Children and Criminal Studies. Abstract Punishment is a learning theory aimed at reducing the probability of an unwanted response in presenting an unpleasant stimulus or removing a pleasant one. In depth studies, of history, conditioned stimuli, reinforcement and punishment schedule, magnitude, immediacy, and stimulus control regarding punishment, have proven them to be important factors in determining the success rate. However, further research has revealed possible side effects of such treatment and a minimal efficacy in regards to criminal punishment used by the justice system. Nevertheless it is believed that punishment is still a viable option in suppressing unwanted behaviour under certain circumstances and after careful consideration of the factors in play. Punishment is a reduction of the likelihood of a specific response in presenting an immediate delivery of an unpleasant stimulus or the removal of a pleasant one (Bernstein, Penner, Clarke-Stewart, & Roy, 2006; Lieberman, 2000). This approach is that of operant conditioning where an organism responds to its environment in order to minimize the stimulation by ceasing the unwanted behaviour (Azrin & Holz, 1966). Due to moral and ethical issues in regards of using punishment to treat behavioural problems, experiments
Critically evaluate trait theories of personality.
Critically evaluate trait theories of personality. "There are as many definitions of personality as there are personality psychologists" is what Sternberg stated about personality (Intelligence and Personality /Sternberg). Unfortunately, this statement isn't far from the truth. Personality is one of the most general and unclearly defined terms in psychology (Eysenck, 1957). This essay evaluates trait theories of personality on the basis of Block, Weiss and Thorne's (1979) definition of personality: Personality refers to "more of less stable internal factors that make one person's behaviour consistent from one time to another, and different from the behaviour other people would manifest in comparable situations". To begin with it will present a general description of trait theories. It then assesses trait theories on several levels of analysis. It begins by looking at the validity and reliability of assessment forms for traits and the resulting predictive value specific traits in people will have on behaviour. It then evaluates individual and situational factors that affect predictability. The extent to which trait theories can be used to predict behaviour and in which situations. An assessment of the practical application and benefit the development of trait theories has had in different areas follows. Finally trait theories of personality are compared to other
Critically evaluate socio-economic and cultural predictors of psychological well-being.
Submitted, Jan, 2004 Critically evaluate socio-economic and cultural predictors of psychological well-being. Over recent years, a shift has occurred in the study of optimal human functioning from illness (or the lack of it) to the more positive view of what it means to be well (Diener, Suh, Lucas and Smith, 1999). Early studies that examined demographic factors produced little support in terms of their predictive value of well-being. However recent investigations, which have tested socio-economic and cultural variables using the tradition of Subjective Well Being (SWB), have offered more compelling evidence. Nevertheless, methodological limitations as well as a lack of theoretical underpinnings within the SWB tradition indicate a need for more comprehensive and complimentary measurements, as well as a more integrated model of well-being that combines the tradition of SWB, with the more theoretically derived tradition of Psychological Well-Being (PWB). Such a typological model could go some way to reflecting a more encompassing view of human well-being. Historically, the major approach used to understand positive human functioning has been through the study of illness. However, the emphasis has shifted more recently to investigations of what it means to be well, since more individuals are well than ill (Diener et al., 1999). Initially, such studies concentrated on
Evaluate Winter's Ideas on How Psychology Might Play a Role in Finding More Sustainable Ways of Life.
Evaluate Winter's Ideas on How Psychology Might Play a Role in Finding More Sustainable Ways of Life It has come to be widely accepted that the Earth is currently facing a multitude of problems, for which mankind is responsible. Natural resources such as coal (and it's derivatives) and wood are being consumed at an exponential rate, and the ecosystem itself is under threat. Use of harmful chemicals (such as CFCs and carbon monoxide) and their effect on the depleting ozone layer is just one example. Moreover, the human race is propagating at a rate that simply cannot be supported by the planet for too much longer. The consequence of all of this is that the planet is heading towards a state in which it will be unable to sustain human life. Brown (1990) suggests (somewhat disconcertingly) that we only have approximately 40 years to reverse these trends before the deterioration intensifies to "an uncontrollable downward spiral". Winter (1996) has focussed her efforts on attempting to discern what role psychology can play in reversing these trends. She focuses on modernist Western lifestyle and ideology as the main 'culprit' of the damage thus far, and suggests ways in which current thinking and perception within the 'west' can be altered to adapt to the changes necessary for creating a sustainable culture. The first major point Winter makes is that before any change can be made,
How May Sensory Changes Affect the Everyday Lives of Older People?
How May Sensory Changes Affect the Everyday Lives of Older People? Our awareness of the world occurs through physiological mechanisms that process afferent, sensory information. Like all physiological mechanisms these are subject to detrimental changes as the body ages. It is essential to understand these changes so that we can meet any extra requirements that may ensue. This is increasingly important as the proportion of the population that is elderly steadily rises. Individuals over the age of 65 now account for 16% of the population (OPCS, 1991a). This essay will identify the problems that arise for the elderly and suggest ways they can be managed. Gustation shows least age-related decrement because, unlike other neural cells, taste receptors have life spans of only a few days and are continually replaced. Salt and sucrose can easily be identified at all ages, but more complex taste stimuli (eg. carrot) cause difficulties for old people, suggesting that olfaction, rather than gustation, might be impaired (Doty et al., 1984). Olfaction shows marked age-related decline with 25% of 65-80 year-olds, and 50% of people over 80, reporting anosmia (Doty et al., 1984). Possible causes include atrophy of the olfactory bulb (Ordy & Brizzee, 1975), decreased volume of the layers of the bulb (Bhatnagar et al., 1987) and a decreased number of olfactory neurons (Hinds & McNelly, 1981).
What is the evidence that aggression and violence are biologically determined?
What is the evidence that aggression and violence are biologically determined? Tebartz van Elst, Woermann, Leemiex, Thompsam, and Trimble (2000) suggest aggressive and violent or antisocial behaviours are 'phenomenological and probably neurobiological heterogeneous'. Substantial research emphasizes two types of aggression; predatory (PA) and defensive (DA) (Vitiello and Stoff, 1997;cited in Tebatz van Elst, et al., 2000). In addition, premeditated aggression, impulsive aggression, or violence due to illness, e.g. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, have also been identified (Bradshaw and Mattingley, 1995). Furthermore, exhibited aggression/violence may be defined as physical or psychological (Smythies, 1970). Subsequently, their triggers may be conscious or unconscious and may be attributed to environmental/social factors, temperament, gender differences, genetic factors, and neurological determinants [including various brain structures and neurotransmitters] (Baron and Richardson, 1994; Wood, Wong and Chacherer, 1991; cited in Lau and Pihl, 1995;). Both excitatory and inhibitory (Carlson, 1998) brain structures are believed to mediate antisocial behaviours including; the temporal lobes, parts of the Limbic System (LS), Amygdala (AD), Periaqueductal Grey Matter (PAG), Hypothalamus (HT) and septal area), and the Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC) (Marzuk, 1996).
Research Proposal - Investigating The Effect of Social Anxiety on Motor Response
The Effect of Social Anxiety on Motor Response The Effect of Social Anxiety on Motor Response Clarke and Wells (1995) put forward a cognitive model of social phobia to explain the processes that takes place when certain individuals enter a social situation. Their model demonstrates how increased self focused attention and decreased processing of external social cues can lead to the experience of social phobia. Based on such cognitive models of social anxiety, Hofmann (2007) determined that one of the primary drivers of this disorder is misguided self-focussed attention. Ledley and Heimberg (2006) stated that socially anxious individuals take on an observer's perspective and tend to be internal spectators of themselves. Zou, Hudson, and Rapee (2007) found that high-blushing socially anxious individuals demonstrate elevated levels of self-focussed attention; in the form of excessive focus toward their external appearance, thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. It is believed that such self-focussed attention is integral to the maintenance of social anxiety as it exacerbates the self awareness of negative mental representations conducive to producing anxiety and excludes the processing of any positive social feedback (Moscovitch, Kim, & Taylor, 2004; Pineles & Mineka, 2005). McEwan and Devins (1983) noted that highly anxious participants actually overrated how their
Discuss the statement that adolescence is a period of Storm and Stress.
Discuss the statement that 'adolescence is a period of Storm and Stress'. Adolescence is the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood; "The period of development from the onset of puberty to the attainment of adulthood. This begins with the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics, usually between the ages of 11 and 13 years of age (Colman 2006). It represents the period of time during which a person experiences a variety of biological changes and involves a dramatic transitions in the physical, social, sexual, and intellectual spheres. This essay will review the theories of adolescences and the extent to which they characterise adolescences as a time of storm and stress as suggested by Hall (1904). Firstly, the changing notion of adolescence through history and its cultural context will be discussed, followed by the biological, psychosocial and cognitive approaches to adolescence. Adolescence as a period of stress and storm can be traced back as far as writings of Plato and Aristotle. Plato (1953) described adolescent boys as constantly arguing and very easily excited. Aristotle (1941) described adolescents as "lacking in sexual self-restraint, fickle in their desires, passionate and impulsive". However, during the middle ages, adolescence was mostly ignored as a life stage and children were viewed as small adults. "Childhood and adolescence were regarded