SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN AND DEVELOPMENTAL CONSEQUENCESOF ABUSE.

Introduction

Hetherington, Parke, Gauvain and Locke (2006) see a child’s development as influenced by factors such as genetic inheritance, the environment into which the child is born and raised, family and peer interactions and others. This paper will discuss social and emotional development in preschool children generally and specifically look at how abuse at this time may impact developmental processes. A brief discussion of toddlerhood and middle childhood will be included in order to highlight the different developmental levels and establish an understanding of the major changes that occur at these times. It must be noted that all of the developmental levels are equally important given that for normal development to take place in preschool, development in toddlerhood has to have been normal. The role of attachment in social and emotional development will be explored taking the view that it is intrinsically knitted into child development. Finally the impact of abuse on said development will then be discussed with a view to understanding how normal developmental processes of the preschool child may be interfered with.

Developmental theories that inform social and emotional development

Psychodynamic theory and Psycho social theory

A number of theories of development have been found to be particularly relevant to the discussion on social and emotional development of preschool children. While acknowledging Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s contribution to developmental theories ,their theories are particularly pertinent to cognitive development and although cognitive development shares a reciprocal relationship with social and emotional development, for the purpose of this paper it is important to narrow down to the developmental theories that particularly pertain to social and emotional development. It is felt that Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic theory in which he places emphasis on how early experiences particularly in the first six years of life influence later development, as well as his contribution to the role of attachment in socio-emotional development is relevant here however his views on psychosexual development are not considered as relevant. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development is considered more relevant as it builds on Freud’s thinking but considers the primary motivation for human behavior to be social in nature as opposed to sexual. Erikson sees the individual as developing through the lifespan, with normal development occurring in specific stages, for example in early childhood, and during what he terms play age, Erikson would say that the major tasks of these stages is the learning of self control, establishment of autonomy, and the developing of initiative and mastering of their environment. ( Hetherington et al, 2006;Santrock, 2007).

Ecological systems theory

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory is one that has been found to be particularly important to social and emotional development of preschool children. According to Hetherington et al (2006) and Berk(2006), Bronfenbrenner’s theory falls into what developmentalists have termed “contextual perspectives” due to the view that the child develops within a complex system of relationships that are affected by the environment. Bronfenbrenner acknowledges the part played by biological influences such as physical attributes, personalities including a child’s temperament and capacities in influencing development in what he terms the microsystem. Further to this he believes that relationships within the microsystem are bidirectional with the child being an active participant with the ability to affect behavior and be affected by the behavior of others. For example a child who generally does not listen to his or her parents, is sullen and angry will likely elicit frustration and negativity in the parents wheras a child who is sociable, and listens to them and follows directions will elicit patience and positive regard. At the same time a child who witnesses a parent being physically assaulted by the other or is themselves repeatedly physically assaulted by their parent will likely become fearful and mistrusting of the parent.

Berk(2006) believes that these reciprocal interactions when repeated over time are likely to have an enduring impact on a child’s development. The mesosystem which is Bronfenbrenner’s second level in his model encompasses influences on the microsystem such as preschool and neighbours . For example a difficult child at home may likely be a difficult child at preschool with behaviours, such as aggression and refusing to follow directions that are seen in the home being enacted in the preschool environment. The exosystem made up of community resources, extended family and other organizations such as parents employers and the macrosystem which is the outer circle made up of cultural values within the society a child is growing up in, their laws, customs and resources complete Bronfenbrenner’s model and while their influence is seen to be indirect they can have a major impact children’s immediate settings. For example families that have community and social supports are likely to suffer less stress reducing the chances of negative interactions with their children.

Ethological theory of attachment

Bowlby’s ethological theory of attachment is also particularly relevant in social and emotional development of preschool children. According to Berk (2006, p. 420) the theory “recognizes the infant’s emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival “. Bowlby’s theory suggests that attachment occurs from 6-8 months through to 18 months to 2 years at which time babies begin to display separation anxiety. With time a child may become less dependent on the caregiver being present at all times and depend instead on the confidence that the caregiver will be ”accessible and responsive” when needed. Bowlby talks extensively about secure and insecure attachment and the development of internal working models within the developing child that form part of their personality and which will serve as a guide for all future relationships. A longitudinal study carried out by Arend, Gove and Sroufe (1979) in which individual differences in security of attachment at 18 months and effective autonomous functioning at age 2 years were related to the dimensions of ego control and ego resiliency at age 4-5 years found that children that were classified as securely attached were significantly higher on ego resiliency and curiosity. According to Arend et al (1979)the data was able to provide the link between an infant’s quality of attachment, the toddler’s effectiveness in a problem- solving situation, and competence during the preschool years.

Dehart, Sroufe and Cooper (2000) highlights the reciprocal nature of cognitive development and social and emotional development and suggest that for preschoolers while their cognitive advances support their social and emotional development, for example with language development comes an ability to form peer relationships, the other way is also true as social and emotional development will positively impact cognitive development , given that as preschoolers interact with peers they are cognitively stimulated gaining knowledge and an expanded view of the world. It must be noted that while this paper is specifically focusing on social and emotional development in preschoolers, said development ...

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Saarni and Thompson (1999) discuss the “inseparability of social and emotional development” stating that the two are reciprocally influential and inextricably linked given that emotional experience is developmentally embedded in social experience. Sroufe (1996, p.151) also makes reference to this view when he states that the “progress of emotional development is intertwined with advances in social development”. While in agreement with this view and acknowledging that this notion applies to all the stages of the developmental spectrum, it is felt that it is even more relevant in the stages of infancy, toddlerhood and preschool and middle childhood given that for this age group emotional development takes place within the environment created by the care giving relationship. According to Sroufe (1996, p.151) “ one of the most significant aspects of socio emotional development is the transition from the virtually complete dependency of the infant to the later autonomous functioning of the child”. A number of phases in development are important to mention here.

According to Sroufe(1996) there is the 0-3 months phase in which the issue is mostly regarding physiological regulation, requiring the establishment of routine by the caregiver, there is then the 3-6 months phase, which is about managing tension, requiring the caregiver to be sensitive, cooperative and interactive, this is followed by the 6-12 month phase which is primarily focused on the infant establishing an effective attachment relationship requiring that the caregiver be available and responsive to the needs of the infant. The 12-18 month phase focuses on the now toddler becoming adept at exploring and gaining mastery over their environment requiring that the caregiver present as a secure base that the toddler feels able to return to, should the environment become uncertain and frightening. The 18-30 months phase is about individuation or becoming an autonomous being which requires firm support by the caregiver. Finally the 30-54months phase is about managing impulses, sex role identification and peer relationships. A discussion on the role played by attachment is also necessary to gain a full understanding of social and emotional development and how such development may be affected by the quality of the care giving relationship. While the emphasis is on the preschool child, it is virtually impossible to discuss the preschool child without having first looked at the social and emotional development leading up to this.

Social and emotional development of the toddler

According to Sroufe (1996) theorists such as Erikson, Spitz, Mahler and Sandler agree that during the toddler period there are significant qualitative advances in the sense of self with child becoming more autonomous as he or she becomes increasingly aware of his or her own intentions. At this stage the child is increasingly moving towards independent functioning which is facilitated by the development of motor skills and fine motor skills allowing for activities such as walking, climbing as well as language (vocalizing). A child at this stage will feel increasingly confident to explore their surrounds with the knowledge that their caregiver is close by and will generally refer back to the caregiver in situations of uncertainty. Sroufe (1996) describes the emergence of self recognition, towards the end of a toddler’s second year, at this time they are able to look in the mirror and understand that the person they see is themselves. Further to this Sroufe (1996) also describes that at this time the child increasingly gains an understanding of self and others as agent, as they begin to understand that they are a separate and independent being to others and can play separate roles. Sroufe (1996) believes that the beginnings of self regulation occur at this time as well, with the toddler gaining an appreciation for rules and consequences as well as an understanding that some behaviors are not acceptable and have consequences. This too is a time for testing boundaries with the toddler knowing that the behavior is not allowed but doing it anyway while watching out for the caregiver’s response.

The preschool years

Generally viewed as being between the ages of three and five, Rolfe (2004, p.122) sees “the preschool period as the period in which children begin to engage-if they have not already done so- in social and emotional life beyond the family and attachment figures”. According to Dehart, Sroufe and Cooper (2000) and Hetherington et al (2006) the preschool years are a time when the child becomes more able to communicate meaning, invite others to play, begins to prefer peers over adults, is able to manage imaginative play, and will be inclined to have same gender playmates. Peer relationships at this stage are very important because they set the stage for learning about being fair, reciprocity and turn taking, as well as managing aggression.

Preschoolers will show efforts to control negative emotions control situations and understand caregiver values, respond to the moods of others and are also able to show shame, embarrassment, pride and guilt. They will be better able to use language to direct attention and regulate behavior and may be able to see others perspectives while their problem solving skills are also improved. For example at this stage they should be better able to deal with minor frustrations without resorting to aggression such as kicking and hitting as a toddler might be inclined to do. Parents and caregivers are inclined to have higher expectations of the child as far as being able to maintain positive peer interactions, friendships, become more independent, able to control their impulses more, ability to regulate emotions and separate from their attachment figures without excessive anxiety (Rolfe, 2004). Dehart et al (2000) describe this time as being about social achievements and gaining social competence, as their world becomes expanded, with access to day care, nursery school and kindergarten with “notable developments in self reliance, self control and self-regulation” (Dehart et al, 2000).

Self reliance in preschoolers

Achieving greater self reliance is viewed as a very important step by several developmental theorists. Social learning theorist Albert Bandura, describes this time as “self efficacy” while psychoanalysts like Erikson see this time a time of growing “initiative”(Dehart et al, 2000). According to Dehart et al (2000) this is supported by increasing abilities with motor skills(climbing and manipulating objects ), language (thinking, planning and problem solving) , being able to tolerate frustrations and the emerging capacity to take part in imaginative and fantasy play.

Emotional regulation in preschoolers

Zeanah(2000, p.620) states that “emotion regulation is the keystone of social-emotional development during infancy. According to Berk (2006) Emotional self- regulation is the voluntary management of one’s emotions requiring that the individual achieve the ability to hold in check their thoughts and resultant negative response to a stressful situation while trying to relieve the stressful situation. Preschoolers according to Dehart et al (2000) become increasingly able to weigh possible consequences of actions before they act, they are better able to tolerate frustrations, manage their emotions, hence a notable reduction in tantrums at this stage, they also have a better understanding of standards of behavior (internalizing). Sroufe (1996) sees attachment as an emotional construct and believes it to be especially significant in the regulation of infant emotion and a precursor of a child’s ability to regulate emotion in the future. This is progressive beginning with an infant being unable to regulate emotion in the first half year and depending on the caregiver to respond to his or her needs to then being able to direct purposeful communication to the caregiver in the second half year, with the knowledge that the caregiver will be responsive to his or her needs. This also sets the stage for further social and emotional development, with the infant being able to begin to explore their environment with the learned knowledge that the caregiver remains available when situations become threatening.

Dehart et al(2000) believe that the social and emotional development of preschool children as well as their behavior is to a large extent related to how they were cared for as infants and toddlers and how they continue to be cared for now. Further to this, Dehart et al (2000, p.356) would argue that “competent, well -adjusted preschoolers have typically had supportive, nurturing care” from their parents since infancy and as preschoolers they continue to need the warmth, emotional responsiveness and sharing of positive feelings in order for them to be socially competent with their peers while also being cooperative with their parents. Denham and Burton (2003) believe that attachment is the foundation for preschoolers social and emotional learning, further to this they believe that the experience gleaned from their caregiver interactions is one that they use to build on their internal working models of themselves and others, enabling them to make sense of the world and answer questions such as “am I worthy of care?, is the world a safe place?”.

According to Denham and Burton (2003) internal working models help the child to make sense of and cope with stressors, especially as they move into the wider world of attending daycare and kindergarten they are able to use their internal working models to determine who their friends are, and how they behave towards peers in a social context. Further to this Denham and Burton (2003) would argue that children that are securely attached will likely have internal working models that are positive and view others as “supportive, helpful and positive while viewing themselves as competent and worthy of respect. Such children in a preschool setting are likely to be “peer leaders”,” behaviourally and emotionally empathic” and “rated by teachers to have a higher level of social skills”. According to Denham and Burton (2003) Insecurely attached children on the other hand who are anxious and avoidant develop a view of other as undependable, hostile and rejecting, in preschool they are likely to exhibit aggressive and antisocial behavior. They see insecurely attached children that are anxious-ambivalent, as mistrusting the world and seeing themselves as only safe, when their caregiver is close. In preschool they lack self confidence, exaggerate emotional reactions and generally gravitate towards the adults. Insecurely attached children that are classified as disorganized -disoriented are generally seen in preschool as being aggressive, manipulative, hostile punitive and overly affectionate. In stressful situations such children may view others as threatening and react aggressively.

Developmental consequences of abuse on the preschool child

Hetherington et al (2006) defines child abuse as the physical, psychological (emotional) or sexual abuse or neglect of children. Physical abuse refers to the harming a child by any means such as punching, kicking, hitting, shaking and others. Emotional- abuse refers to Inattention to a child’s need for affection, extreme acts of punishment, verbal threats, belittling, name calling, and witnessing domestic violence. Sexual abuse refers to inappropriate touching, rape, incest, sodomy while neglect is the failure to provide the necessities of life, and to protect.

Dehart et al (2000) believes that exposure to trauma such as violence in the family will interfere with a child’s normal development as regards trust which may negatively impact the development of autonomy. This may also lead to impaired cognitive functioning, lowered social competence and emotional trauma. Dehart et al (2000) and Sigelman and Rider (2006) suggest that preschool children that have experienced abuse may present with externalising behaviours such as aggression towards peer and conduct problems they may also present with Internalising behaviours such as anxiety, regressive and somatic signs of distress such as bedwetting, sleep disturbances, stomach aches, fear of being alone, and regression in toileting and language. They may also have deficient social skills with a marked lack of empathy in response to the distress of others. Rolfe (2004) also states that “children who experience abusive , neglectful attachment figures may develop a view of themselves as unloveable, with significant negative implications for future close relationships.” Zeanah (2000) supports this view and suggests that children who have been exposed to trauma may have problems with relationships with peers and caregivers, emotional regulation and self development, as regards their self-understanding, self- esteem and self efficacy.

In a research study carried out by Haskett & Kistner (1991) in which 3-6-year-old children with a history of physical abuse and a closely matched comparison group of 14 non abused children, all of whom had been in day-care for more than a year, participated, it was found that abused children initiated fewer positive interactions with peers, exhibited a higher proportion of negative behavior than non abused comparison children, were less liked by peers, with peers less likely to reciprocate the initiations for play by abused children even though peers approached abused children as often as they approached comparison children. Teachers viewed abused children as more behaviorally disturbed. Overall, the results indicated that abused children experience disturbed social interactions outside the home environment, despite involvement in a day-care setting that provides alternative peer and adult role models.

Another study carried out by Hildyard & Wolfe (2002) on child neglect concluded that child neglect can have severe, deleterious short- and long-term effects on children’s cognitive, socio-emotional, and behavioral development. Consistent with attachment and related theories, neglect occurring early in life was seen to be particularly detrimental to subsequent development with neglected children being found to have more severe cognitive and academic deficits, social withdrawal and limited peer interactions, and internalizing (as opposed to externalizing) problems.

Social and emotional development in middle childhood

Following on from preschool age middle childhood is briefly discussed here to indicate normal continued development. Middle childhood is considered to be from age 6 to 12 years and while growth is not as noticeable it is just as important as it continues on from preschool, fine tuning the advances of the preschool age. Dehart et al (2000), believes that the major developments at this stage are mainly internal having more to do with how the child thinks and feels. The major developmental context at this time is seen as the school where advances are made with the child gaining a deeper understanding of themselves and with peer relationships with the growing realization that friendships should include loyalty and mutual support. There is also the growing understanding of emotions with children also becoming more empathetic and at this time. While the relationship with parents may change as the child is seen to be old enough to do more and reason more, this does not take away from the need for a continued secure attachment relationship.

Clinical implications

Campbell(2002) would argue that a problem is considered to be a clinical problem when it includes a pattern of symptoms, has been troublesome for some time and is seen in more that one setting for example at home and possibly in day care. It must also be a problem that “impedes “the child’s ability to negotiate the important developmental tasks necessary for adaptive functioning in the family and the peer group” (Campbell, 2002, p.77). Campbell (2002) also urges that professional making judgements about preschool children should take into account that while some problems may be overcome as children develop, it is not always the case as research has increasingly found that problems at preschool age may persist into school and beyond. According to Brandell and Ringel ( 2007)children who have experienced abuse may present with disorders such as generalised anxiety disorder, post traumatic stress disorder and separation anxiety as well as depression, oppositional defiant disorder, gender identity disorder are also likely to be seen.

Conclusion

Social and emotional and indeed cognitive development during the preschool years is vitally important as it sets the stage for continued normal development into middle childhood. It is a time when a child’s world begins to expand taking into account learning from primary caregivers, peers and other relevant adults that have input into the child’s functioning . As discussed in this paper the preschool child at this stage should be progressively able to form satisfying peer relationships, be developing in language skills, problem solving, be able to regulate their emotions in times of intense stress and also be able to manage spending time away from their primary caregivers without becoming overly anxious. As noted the form of attachment to the primary caregiver be it secure or insecure plays an integral part in terms of preschool development as at this stage the child will have developed their internal working models as regards how the world is and how they should respond to challenges in this world. While the internal working model may continue to change as input from peers and significant other adults increases, It is clear that what has gone before is vitally important to this development hence the importance of the attachment relationship during the infancy and toddler stages. It is therefore very important in clinical work to consider the quality of the attachment relationship as one of the precursors to what might be happening for the child when they present. It is also clear that a child’s environment will have an impact on their social and emotional development as discussed using Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of development, requiring that clinicians take into account issues such as the child’s personality and biological makeup, culture, family dynamics as well as all other influences. Clinicians faced with a preschool child experiencing problems should therefore carry out focussed preschool age appropriate clinical assessments, focussing on, experiences and perceptions of the child and their caregivers utilising language, and other assessment tools that are appropriate for this age in terms of being able to understand what is expected of them.

References

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Berk, L. (7th Edition)(2006).Child Development. USA, Pearson Education.

Campbell, S.B. (2nd Edition) (2000. Behaviour Problems in Preschool children: Clinical Developmental Issues. New York, Guildford Press.

Dehart, G.B., Sroufe, L.A., and Cooper,R.G. (4th edition)(2000). Child Development: Its nature and course. USA, Mcgraw- Hill.

Denham S.A., and Burton, R. (2003) Social and Emotional Prevention Intervention programming for preschoolers. New York, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

Haskett, M.E., & Kistner, J.A. (1991) Social interactions and peer perceptions of youngphysically abused children. Child Development, 62(5), 979-990.

Hetherington, E.M., Parke, R.D., Gauvain, M., and Locke, V.O., (6th Edition) (2006).Child Psychology: A contemporary Viewpoint.USA, Mcgraw- Hill.

Hildyard, K.L., & Wolfe, D. A. (2002) Child Neglect: developmental issues and outcomes. Child Abuse & Neglect 26, (6-7), 679-695.

Rolfe, R. (2004). Rethinking Attachment for Early Childhood Practice: Promoting Security and Resilience in young Children. NSW, Unwin.

Saarni, C., Thompson, R.A. (1999). The Development of Emotional Competence. New York, Guildford Press.

Santrock, J.W.(11th Edition) (2007).Child Development. USA. Mcgraw- Hill.

Sigelman, C.K., and Rider, E.A., (5th Edition)(2006). Life-span Human Development. USA, Thomson Wadsworth.

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Zeanah, C.H. (2nd Edition) (2000). Handbook of Infant Mental Health. New York, Guildford Press.

SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN

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Saarni, C., Thompson, R.A. (1999). The Development of Emotional Competence. New York, Guildford Press.

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