Dehart, Sroufe and Cooper (2000) highlights the reciprocal nature of cognitive development and social and emotional development and suggest that for preschoolers while their cognitive advances support their social and emotional development, for example with language development comes an ability to form peer relationships, the other way is also true as social and emotional development will positively impact cognitive development , given that as preschoolers interact with peers they are cognitively stimulated gaining knowledge and an expanded view of the world. It must be noted that while this paper is specifically focusing on social and emotional development in preschoolers, said development does not occur in a vacuum requiring normal cognitive development to occur at the same pace in order to achieve healthy development.
Saarni and Thompson (1999) discuss the “inseparability of social and emotional development” stating that the two are reciprocally influential and inextricably linked given that emotional experience is developmentally embedded in social experience. Sroufe (1996, p.151) also makes reference to this view when he states that the “progress of emotional development is intertwined with advances in social development”. While in agreement with this view and acknowledging that this notion applies to all the stages of the developmental spectrum, it is felt that it is even more relevant in the stages of infancy, toddlerhood and preschool and middle childhood given that for this age group emotional development takes place within the environment created by the care giving relationship. According to Sroufe (1996, p.151) “ one of the most significant aspects of socio emotional development is the transition from the virtually complete dependency of the infant to the later autonomous functioning of the child”. A number of phases in development are important to mention here.
According to Sroufe(1996) there is the 0-3 months phase in which the issue is mostly regarding physiological regulation, requiring the establishment of routine by the caregiver, there is then the 3-6 months phase, which is about managing tension, requiring the caregiver to be sensitive, cooperative and interactive, this is followed by the 6-12 month phase which is primarily focused on the infant establishing an effective attachment relationship requiring that the caregiver be available and responsive to the needs of the infant. The 12-18 month phase focuses on the now toddler becoming adept at exploring and gaining mastery over their environment requiring that the caregiver present as a secure base that the toddler feels able to return to, should the environment become uncertain and frightening. The 18-30 months phase is about individuation or becoming an autonomous being which requires firm support by the caregiver. Finally the 30-54months phase is about managing impulses, sex role identification and peer relationships. A discussion on the role played by attachment is also necessary to gain a full understanding of social and emotional development and how such development may be affected by the quality of the care giving relationship. While the emphasis is on the preschool child, it is virtually impossible to discuss the preschool child without having first looked at the social and emotional development leading up to this.
Social and emotional development of the toddler
According to Sroufe (1996) theorists such as Erikson, Spitz, Mahler and Sandler agree that during the toddler period there are significant qualitative advances in the sense of self with child becoming more autonomous as he or she becomes increasingly aware of his or her own intentions. At this stage the child is increasingly moving towards independent functioning which is facilitated by the development of motor skills and fine motor skills allowing for activities such as walking, climbing as well as language (vocalizing). A child at this stage will feel increasingly confident to explore their surrounds with the knowledge that their caregiver is close by and will generally refer back to the caregiver in situations of uncertainty. Sroufe (1996) describes the emergence of self recognition, towards the end of a toddler’s second year, at this time they are able to look in the mirror and understand that the person they see is themselves. Further to this Sroufe (1996) also describes that at this time the child increasingly gains an understanding of self and others as agent, as they begin to understand that they are a separate and independent being to others and can play separate roles. Sroufe (1996) believes that the beginnings of self regulation occur at this time as well, with the toddler gaining an appreciation for rules and consequences as well as an understanding that some behaviors are not acceptable and have consequences. This too is a time for testing boundaries with the toddler knowing that the behavior is not allowed but doing it anyway while watching out for the caregiver’s response.
The preschool years
Generally viewed as being between the ages of three and five, Rolfe (2004, p.122) sees “the preschool period as the period in which children begin to engage-if they have not already done so- in social and emotional life beyond the family and attachment figures”. According to Dehart, Sroufe and Cooper (2000) and Hetherington et al (2006) the preschool years are a time when the child becomes more able to communicate meaning, invite others to play, begins to prefer peers over adults, is able to manage imaginative play, and will be inclined to have same gender playmates. Peer relationships at this stage are very important because they set the stage for learning about being fair, reciprocity and turn taking, as well as managing aggression.
Preschoolers will show efforts to control negative emotions control situations and understand caregiver values, respond to the moods of others and are also able to show shame, embarrassment, pride and guilt. They will be better able to use language to direct attention and regulate behavior and may be able to see others perspectives while their problem solving skills are also improved. For example at this stage they should be better able to deal with minor frustrations without resorting to aggression such as kicking and hitting as a toddler might be inclined to do. Parents and caregivers are inclined to have higher expectations of the child as far as being able to maintain positive peer interactions, friendships, become more independent, able to control their impulses more, ability to regulate emotions and separate from their attachment figures without excessive anxiety (Rolfe, 2004). Dehart et al (2000) describe this time as being about social achievements and gaining social competence, as their world becomes expanded, with access to day care, nursery school and kindergarten with “notable developments in self reliance, self control and self-regulation” (Dehart et al, 2000).
Self reliance in preschoolers
Achieving greater self reliance is viewed as a very important step by several developmental theorists. Social learning theorist Albert Bandura, describes this time as “self efficacy” while psychoanalysts like Erikson see this time a time of growing “initiative”(Dehart et al, 2000). According to Dehart et al (2000) this is supported by increasing abilities with motor skills(climbing and manipulating objects ), language (thinking, planning and problem solving) , being able to tolerate frustrations and the emerging capacity to take part in imaginative and fantasy play.
Emotional regulation in preschoolers
Zeanah(2000, p.620) states that “emotion regulation is the keystone of social-emotional development during infancy. According to Berk (2006) Emotional self- regulation is the voluntary management of one’s emotions requiring that the individual achieve the ability to hold in check their thoughts and resultant negative response to a stressful situation while trying to relieve the stressful situation. Preschoolers according to Dehart et al (2000) become increasingly able to weigh possible consequences of actions before they act, they are better able to tolerate frustrations, manage their emotions, hence a notable reduction in tantrums at this stage, they also have a better understanding of standards of behavior (internalizing). Sroufe (1996) sees attachment as an emotional construct and believes it to be especially significant in the regulation of infant emotion and a precursor of a child’s ability to regulate emotion in the future. This is progressive beginning with an infant being unable to regulate emotion in the first half year and depending on the caregiver to respond to his or her needs to then being able to direct purposeful communication to the caregiver in the second half year, with the knowledge that the caregiver will be responsive to his or her needs. This also sets the stage for further social and emotional development, with the infant being able to begin to explore their environment with the learned knowledge that the caregiver remains available when situations become threatening.
Dehart et al(2000) believe that the social and emotional development of preschool children as well as their behavior is to a large extent related to how they were cared for as infants and toddlers and how they continue to be cared for now. Further to this, Dehart et al (2000, p.356) would argue that “competent, well -adjusted preschoolers have typically had supportive, nurturing care” from their parents since infancy and as preschoolers they continue to need the warmth, emotional responsiveness and sharing of positive feelings in order for them to be socially competent with their peers while also being cooperative with their parents. Denham and Burton (2003) believe that attachment is the foundation for preschoolers social and emotional learning, further to this they believe that the experience gleaned from their caregiver interactions is one that they use to build on their internal working models of themselves and others, enabling them to make sense of the world and answer questions such as “am I worthy of care?, is the world a safe place?”.
According to Denham and Burton (2003) internal working models help the child to make sense of and cope with stressors, especially as they move into the wider world of attending daycare and kindergarten they are able to use their internal working models to determine who their friends are, and how they behave towards peers in a social context. Further to this Denham and Burton (2003) would argue that children that are securely attached will likely have internal working models that are positive and view others as “supportive, helpful and positive while viewing themselves as competent and worthy of respect. Such children in a preschool setting are likely to be “peer leaders”,” behaviourally and emotionally empathic” and “rated by teachers to have a higher level of social skills”. According to Denham and Burton (2003) Insecurely attached children on the other hand who are anxious and avoidant develop a view of other as undependable, hostile and rejecting, in preschool they are likely to exhibit aggressive and antisocial behavior. They see insecurely attached children that are anxious-ambivalent, as mistrusting the world and seeing themselves as only safe, when their caregiver is close. In preschool they lack self confidence, exaggerate emotional reactions and generally gravitate towards the adults. Insecurely attached children that are classified as disorganized -disoriented are generally seen in preschool as being aggressive, manipulative, hostile punitive and overly affectionate. In stressful situations such children may view others as threatening and react aggressively.
Developmental consequences of abuse on the preschool child
Hetherington et al (2006) defines child abuse as the physical, psychological (emotional) or sexual abuse or neglect of children. Physical abuse refers to the harming a child by any means such as punching, kicking, hitting, shaking and others. Emotional- abuse refers to Inattention to a child’s need for affection, extreme acts of punishment, verbal threats, belittling, name calling, and witnessing domestic violence. Sexual abuse refers to inappropriate touching, rape, incest, sodomy while neglect is the failure to provide the necessities of life, and to protect.
Dehart et al (2000) believes that exposure to trauma such as violence in the family will interfere with a child’s normal development as regards trust which may negatively impact the development of autonomy. This may also lead to impaired cognitive functioning, lowered social competence and emotional trauma. Dehart et al (2000) and Sigelman and Rider (2006) suggest that preschool children that have experienced abuse may present with externalising behaviours such as aggression towards peer and conduct problems they may also present with Internalising behaviours such as anxiety, regressive and somatic signs of distress such as bedwetting, sleep disturbances, stomach aches, fear of being alone, and regression in toileting and language. They may also have deficient social skills with a marked lack of empathy in response to the distress of others. Rolfe (2004) also states that “children who experience abusive , neglectful attachment figures may develop a view of themselves as unloveable, with significant negative implications for future close relationships.” Zeanah (2000) supports this view and suggests that children who have been exposed to trauma may have problems with relationships with peers and caregivers, emotional regulation and self development, as regards their self-understanding, self- esteem and self efficacy.
In a research study carried out by Haskett & Kistner (1991) in which 3-6-year-old children with a history of physical abuse and a closely matched comparison group of 14 non abused children, all of whom had been in day-care for more than a year, participated, it was found that abused children initiated fewer positive interactions with peers, exhibited a higher proportion of negative behavior than non abused comparison children, were less liked by peers, with peers less likely to reciprocate the initiations for play by abused children even though peers approached abused children as often as they approached comparison children. Teachers viewed abused children as more behaviorally disturbed. Overall, the results indicated that abused children experience disturbed social interactions outside the home environment, despite involvement in a day-care setting that provides alternative peer and adult role models.
Another study carried out by Hildyard & Wolfe (2002) on child neglect concluded that child neglect can have severe, deleterious short- and long-term effects on children’s cognitive, socio-emotional, and behavioral development. Consistent with attachment and related theories, neglect occurring early in life was seen to be particularly detrimental to subsequent development with neglected children being found to have more severe cognitive and academic deficits, social withdrawal and limited peer interactions, and internalizing (as opposed to externalizing) problems.
Social and emotional development in middle childhood
Following on from preschool age middle childhood is briefly discussed here to indicate normal continued development. Middle childhood is considered to be from age 6 to 12 years and while growth is not as noticeable it is just as important as it continues on from preschool, fine tuning the advances of the preschool age. Dehart et al (2000), believes that the major developments at this stage are mainly internal having more to do with how the child thinks and feels. The major developmental context at this time is seen as the school where advances are made with the child gaining a deeper understanding of themselves and with peer relationships with the growing realization that friendships should include loyalty and mutual support. There is also the growing understanding of emotions with children also becoming more empathetic and at this time. While the relationship with parents may change as the child is seen to be old enough to do more and reason more, this does not take away from the need for a continued secure attachment relationship.
Clinical implications
Campbell(2002) would argue that a problem is considered to be a clinical problem when it includes a pattern of symptoms, has been troublesome for some time and is seen in more that one setting for example at home and possibly in day care. It must also be a problem that “impedes “the child’s ability to negotiate the important developmental tasks necessary for adaptive functioning in the family and the peer group” (Campbell, 2002, p.77). Campbell (2002) also urges that professional making judgements about preschool children should take into account that while some problems may be overcome as children develop, it is not always the case as research has increasingly found that problems at preschool age may persist into school and beyond. According to Brandell and Ringel ( 2007)children who have experienced abuse may present with disorders such as generalised anxiety disorder, post traumatic stress disorder and separation anxiety as well as depression, oppositional defiant disorder, gender identity disorder are also likely to be seen.
Conclusion
Social and emotional and indeed cognitive development during the preschool years is vitally important as it sets the stage for continued normal development into middle childhood. It is a time when a child’s world begins to expand taking into account learning from primary caregivers, peers and other relevant adults that have input into the child’s functioning . As discussed in this paper the preschool child at this stage should be progressively able to form satisfying peer relationships, be developing in language skills, problem solving, be able to regulate their emotions in times of intense stress and also be able to manage spending time away from their primary caregivers without becoming overly anxious. As noted the form of attachment to the primary caregiver be it secure or insecure plays an integral part in terms of preschool development as at this stage the child will have developed their internal working models as regards how the world is and how they should respond to challenges in this world. While the internal working model may continue to change as input from peers and significant other adults increases, It is clear that what has gone before is vitally important to this development hence the importance of the attachment relationship during the infancy and toddler stages. It is therefore very important in clinical work to consider the quality of the attachment relationship as one of the precursors to what might be happening for the child when they present. It is also clear that a child’s environment will have an impact on their social and emotional development as discussed using Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of development, requiring that clinicians take into account issues such as the child’s personality and biological makeup, culture, family dynamics as well as all other influences. Clinicians faced with a preschool child experiencing problems should therefore carry out focussed preschool age appropriate clinical assessments, focussing on, experiences and perceptions of the child and their caregivers utilising language, and other assessment tools that are appropriate for this age in terms of being able to understand what is expected of them.
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