Review Of Current Literature
In 1971 Adams craeted a open-loop theory which states that ‘if the stimuli are adequate, and the motivational and habit or perceptual states of the organism are sufficient, the response will occur, otherwise not.’ (Adams, 1971). Alongside this open-loop theory Adams also created a closed loop theory which states that for a theory to be a closed loop theory it ‘must be error-centred, with a reference mechanism against which feedback from the response is compared for the detection and correction of error (1971). Adams’s closed loop theory is based upon two traces, these being the memory and perceptual trace. The perceptual trace ‘is the construct which fundamentally determines the extent of movement’ (Adams, 1971) and Adams also states that the perceptual trace ‘is the memory of a past movement’ (Adams, 1971). The memory trace is slightly different to the perceptual trace but ‘relies heavily on the perceptual trace for the moment-to-moment guidance of behaviour’ (Adams, 1971) Based on the closed loop theory Adam’s conducted a study in 1971. The findings of the study found that a high frequency of feedback is better for success during practice.
Method
Participants
Fifteen random male undergraduate subjects all of whom were studying Sport and Exercise Science at Nottingham Trent University provided voluntary consent to take part in the study. The age of the participants varied from 18-23 years old, the weight of the students was between 75-100kg and the height of the participants varied between 150cm-180cm. With the use of a performance pre-test, it was ensured that all of the participants were at a novice level in the task that they were going to be participating in during the experiment. The participants were also made aware that they could withdraw from the experiment at anytime but two days notice before they were going to withdraw was required in a written format. It was ensured that if one participant or more withdrew from the experiment then other participants were available to take their place.
Procedures
The participants were randomly assigned to three equal groups each group containing different frequencies of feedback of knowledge of results (KR). The groups that they were split into are: 100% feedback (feedback after every trial), 50% feedback (feedback after every other trial) and 0% feedback (no feedback). Masking tape was used to mark out a distance, 2 meters away from a dart board positioned on a wall. The dart board was positioned 2 meters away as this is the competition distance, and using the competition distance will increase the ecological validity of the study. The experiment was completed for three days with participants each having 10 trials in a block, each completing 10 blocks per day. In each trial the participant had 3 darts, and a point scoring system (figure 1). Participants only receiving 50% feedback wore occlusion goggles to occlude vision after releasing the dart, with their radial error score measured and relevant information given back to the participants on relevant trials. Participants who received 0% feedback wore the occlusion goggles with all vision occluded and the dart was released with assistance holding the dart correctly before releasing it to prevent injuries. On a 4th day a retention test whereby participants did 5 blocks of 5 of the same trials with no feedback given and this was completed to help conclude whether a high or low frequency of feedback was better for motor learning and performance.
Figure 1: Point scoring system for trials.
Hypothesis
H1: A high frequency of feedback will be better for motor learning compared to a reduced frequency of feedback.
H2: A low frequency of feedback will be better for motor performance compared to a increased frequency of feedback.
References
Adams, J.A (1971). A Closed Loop Theory of Motor Learning. Journal of Motor Behaviour: 3 (2), 111-150.
Salmoni, A.W., Schmidt, R.A. and Walter, C.B. (1984). Knowledge of Results and Motor Learning: A Review and Critical Reappraisal. Psychological Bulletin: 95 (3) 355-386.
Weeks, D.L and Kordus, R.N. (1998). Relative Frequency of Knowledge of Performance and Motor Skill Learning. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport: 69 (3), 224-230.
Winstein, C.J. and Schmidt, R.A. (1990). Reduced Frequency of Knowledge of Results Enhances Motor Skill Learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: 16 (4), 677-691.
Wulf, G. and Schmidt, R.A. (1989). The Learning of Generalized Motor Programs: Reducing the Relative Frequency of Knowledge of Results Enhances Memory. Journal of experimental Psychology: 15 (4), 748-757.
