Using examples of childrens everyday experiences, consider the role of social influences in the different forms of childrens learning that psychological research has identified.

ED209

TMA 01: Using examples of children´s everyday experiences, consider the role of social influences in the different forms of children´s learning that psychological research has identified.

Learning is a modification of behaviour in which new skills or knowledge are gained. Psychological research has identified different learning forms which were developed in different times in history. This essay explains the four most influential theories. Every child is exposed to social influences. Some of these social influences may influence the learning process as well as its success. In the process of this essay, the role of social influences are considered with a comparison between the theories. Finally it will be reflected how the covered theories can be applied to formal learning settings, e.g. the school.

Childhood psychology consists of different, coexisting, complementary and conflicting theories. There are four particular influential theories which are referred to as the four ´grand theories´.

One of this four theories is behaviourism or the learning theory. It was the dominant model in the 1950s and 1960s. The key idea of learning in this theory is conditioning. Classical conditioning was developed by Ivan Pavlov and means an association between an environmental stimulus, which was previously unrelated and a reflex behaviour. The second form of conditioning is called operant conditioning in which the frequency of a certain behaviour is regulated by the behaviour´s consequences, e.g. reinforcement and punishment. The scientist mostly associated with this theory is B. F. Skinner. Both, Pavlov and Skinner claimed that children are passive in their own learning processes and are shaped by social and environmental influences in their behaviour and development, i.e. all behaviour is learned and maintained by its consequences (Oates, Sheehy and Wood, 2009, p. 52).

A method called ´applied behaviour analysis´ (ABA) is a form of operant conditioning. The aim is to improve socially significant behaviour. Joe, a young boy, could not use speech functionally at all. The procedure of ABA helped him to improve his language abilities. The boy earned tokens for doing things appropriately. Every morning, the young boy and his mother choose five things ... and those things are reinforcers that he wants to have so there’s a large list that he can choose from, and he picks five per day, and they all cost varying amounts of tokens and at the end of the day he has a time where he can cash in those tokens and buy effectively one of his reinforcers that are on the menu. (Rebecca Moseley, 2006) The reinforcers worked as rewards for well communication. The child got a reward every time he did well but did not gained anything for undesirable behaviour. In this way he learned how to behave or communicate well in general.

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Another theory arose in the 1960s. This theory was the social learning theory, mainly influenced by Albert Bandura. According to him, the best way for children to learn was by observation and this would work best if the observed actor was similar in sex and age or is seen as attractive. Behaviours, emotions and attitudes that children observe in their environment are imitated. In order to learn , four interrelated factors have to be fulfilled: Attention must be paid to the observed ´model´ and the observed skill has to be retained through appropriate encoding and rehearsal. Physical ability and motivation to reproduce the behaviour or new skill are two further factors. In other words, the process of learning consists of three stages, the exposure to the behaviour or skill that is aimed to be learned, the acquisition of the behaviour or skill and finally acceptance.

According to Bandura (1977), learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effect of their own actions to inform them what to do ... from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action (in Oates et al., 2009).

Examples for this come from television. Davidson (1996, p. 62) reports research showing that the amount of violence children watched as 8 year olds was a better predictor of adult aggression than socioeconomic and child-rearing factors. Further, Huston et al. (1981, p.62) found that very young children who spent a few hours a week watching educational programmes (e.g. Sesame Street) had higher academic scores 3 years later than those who did not watch educational programmes.

This evidence clearly shows the impact of observation on children and their learning abilities. In both cases, the observation led to an altered behaviour through the process of learning. In Davidson´s report children learned to act aggressively simply by observation, other factors seems to be less important. Only the observation of violence transmitted the notion that aggression is an accepted behaviour, i.e. the children learned that violence is a normal behaviour as they saw other people acting violent. Huston et al. show a more positive view on learning through television. It not clear from his report whether the children lived in the same socioeconomic environment and had the same, or at least a similar, extent to which parents are motivated to help their children become a intelligent and good pupil. Nevertheless, those children watching, for example Sesame Street, seem to have learned a lot through educational children television – and not in schools, kindergarten or something similar. The examples point out that children only have to look for other people, especially those similar to them or have a desirable behaviour, and what they are doing. According to the social learning theory, rules or instructions have a lesser impact on children´s learning abilities.

In the first half of the twentieth century the ´stage theory´ emerged. Piaget worked in the field of constructivism. His ´stage theory´ claims that children pass through several sequences of stages in order to develop cognitive abilities. Infants are born with the belief that that they are the centre and moving force of the world. According to Piaget, through the experience of repeating actions and their effects, babies come to understand that actions have consequences (Oates et al., 2009, p. 64). Nevertheless, the relative lack of attention paid to the social and cultural context of child development has been a substantial criticism of Piaget´s ideas (Oates et al., 2009, p. 70). Piaget did not include many social and cultural influences children may face during their first years of life. Other theories pay great attention to this influences and emphasize their importance. Piaget started his work as a biologist and a pedagogical approach resulted from Piaget´s theory. This approach is termed discovery learning. It emphasizes the impact of a rich learning environment. Instead of tuition, children have to be active agents in the exploration and investigation of concepts and physical events. Self-directed action is seen as more valuable as imitation of teachers in order to accumulate knowledge. Adults as teachers are seen as lesser important in tuition as they have a greater authority, which may result in lesser acceptance by the child. Rather, Piaget did value peer contact as having the potential to foster cognitive development (Oates et al., 2009, p. 68)

The last of the four grand theories is social constructivism, which was mainly invented by Vygotsky. Although partially similar to Piaget´s view, Vygotsky saw cultural and social influences as important for the development and learning of children. An important part of Vygotsky´s theory are cultural tools. These are achieved things in the world which are acquired during development and passed on to the next generations. Cultural tools can be either physical or psychological. In every case, they have to be learned, nobody is born with ´innate´ cultural tools.

Another point which differs broadly from Piaget is the importance of adult teachers. Vygotsky argued that learning is best supported when there is a degree of inequality in skills and understanding between two people (Oates et al., 2009, p. 73). Vygotsky called this inequality between the child and what the child can do by self and where the child needs help from other, more able people, the zone of proximal development.

For almost all of the covered forms of learning social influences are important. Nevertheless, the different theories are not only complementary but also conflicting.

Behaviourism emphasizes that children learn only through social influences. According to the behaviour therapist Sean Rhodes (2006), who works with ABA, if children don’t have the social situations where they can go and apply those skills that we’ve taught them, then really it’s a bit pointless teaching them. The therapist underlies the importance of practise after learning. In most schools, for example, practice tasks after learning units are essential in teaching. But social influences do not always play a great role in such formal learning settings.

Piaget´s view differs in this point. In his work, social influences are mostly not mentioned. But from his theory the approach discovery learning emerged. In this approach the child is seen as an active agent which explains and investigates its environment mostly by itself. The imitation of other persons, i.e. social influences, does not matter. Because children have to gain knowledge about their actions and their consequences it can be assumed that social influences shape their behaviour and therefore accumulate knowledge. Even failures are important in this learning development because the children have the chance to learn through their failures. For example, in school the concentration is not on failure but rather on the right answers and gained knowledge. Indeed, failure is seen as something negative which is punished in terms of bad grades. This bad grade could lead to a loss in motivation instead of a learning experience how to do better or right.

In comparison to Piaget, Bandura´s theory is conflicting. The most important content for learning are, similar to behaviourism, social influences. According to Bandura, all learning can only occur if there are social influences, most importantly other people. The example above about the impact of television supports this. Without any influences from the social environment the children would not have learned to act violent if they had not seen it. In more formal learning settings, the children observe the teacher who has desirable skills or knowledge. This observation may support the learning process, especially in physical education or when it comes to writing skills. But an important point to make is that teachers in school usually are not in the same age as the students. According to Bandura´s social learning theory, it could make learning by observation harder when the model is not in the same age, has not the same sex, is not seen as attractive or even does not behave in a way that children experience the teachers´ characteristics and teaching style as desirable. This could lead to a lesser acceptance and finally small opportunities to learn.

Social constructivism paid great attention to social influences as well. Every culture has its own meanings which are taught to subsequent generations, without those influences social life is not possible. According to Vygotsky, particular important are adult teachers. So it is this theory which is applied to most schools. Piaget argued that adult teachers have a greater authority as students in the same age which could cause in a lesser acceptance. Also Bandura claimed that learning would be easier if the model is same in age and sex or at least somehow desirable in his characteristics. For Vygotsky, it is that inequality which ensures a successful learning.

Overall, learning occurs through conditioning, which shapes the child´s behaviour through social influences, involves the acquisition of new knowledge through social influences which involve the observation of other people or teaching from former generations and adults. Another opportunity to learn is via the passing through several sequences and experience of repeated actions as well their consequences. Behaviourism, social constructivism and the social learning theory all underlie the importance of social influences and claim that learning is not possible without such influences. Only Piaget saw learning as an experience which is regulated by oneself and in which social influences are not an inevitable part.

Word count: 1996

References:

Bandura, A. (1977) in ´Theories of Development´ in Oates, J., Wood, C. and Grayson, A. (eds) Psychological Development and Early Childhood, Oxford, Blackwall/The Open University

Davidson (1996) in ´Theories of Development´ in Oates, J., Wood, C. and Grayson, A. (eds) Psychological Development and Early Childhood, Oxford, Blackwall/The Open University

Huston et al. (1981) in ´Theories of Development´ in Oates, J., Wood, C. and Grayson, A. (eds) Psychological Development and Early Childhood, Oxford, Blackwall/The Open University

Oates, Sheehy and Wood, (2009) in ´Theories of Development´ in Oates, J., Wood, C. and Grayson, A. (eds) Psychological Development and Early Childhood, Oxford, Blackwall/The Open University

Oates et al. (2009) in ´Theories of Development´ in Oates, J., Wood, C. and Grayson, A. (eds) Psychological Development and Early Childhood, Oxford, Blackwall/The Open University